- Black Sea
The Black Sea is an inland
sea bounded by southeasternEurope , theCaucasus and the Anatolian peninsula (Turkey ) and is ultimately connected to theAtlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean andAegean Sea s and variousstrait s. TheBosporus strait connects it to theSea of Marmara , and the strait of theDardanelles connects it to the Aegean Sea region of the Mediterranean. These waters separate easternEurope and westernAsia . The Black Sea also connects to theSea of Azov by theStrait of Kerch .The Black Sea has an area of km2 to mi2|436400|wiki=yes|abbr=yes, [436,400 km²—cite web |title=Black Sea Geography |work=University of Delaware College of Marine Studies |url=http://www.ocean.udel.edu/blacksea/geography/index.html |date=2003 |accessmonthday=December 2 |accessyear=2006] and a maximum depth of convert|2200|m|abbr=on.) [cite web |title=Unexpected changes in the oxic/anoxic interface in the Black Sea |work=Nature Publishing Group |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v338/n6214/abs/338411a0.html |date=1989-03-30 |accessmonthday=December 2 |accessyear=2006] The Black Sea forms in an east-west trending elliptical depression which lies between
Bulgaria , Georgia,Romania ,Russia ,Turkey , andUkraine . [Socio-economic indicators for the countries of the Black Sea basin. (2001). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved2 December 2006 from http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/sosio_economic_indicators_for_the_countries_of_the_black_sea_basin_giwa.] It is constrained by thePontic mountain range to the south, theCaucasus mountain range to the east and features a wide shelf to the north-west. The longest east-west extent is about 1175 km.Important cities along the coast include:
Constanţa (306,000 with a metro of 550,000),Istanbul (11,372,613),Odessa (1,001,000),Mangalia (41,153),Burgas (229,250),Varna (357,752 with a metro of 416,000),Kherson (358,000),Sevastopol (379,200),Yalta (80,552),Kerch (158,165),Novorossiysk (281,400),Sochi (328,809),Sukhumi (43,700),Năvodari (34,669),Poti (47,149),Batumi (121,806),Trabzon (275,137),Samsun (439,000)Ordu (190,143) andZonguldak (104,276).are the most significant.
In the past, the water level has varied significantly. Depending on the water level in the basin, more or less of the surrounding shelf and associated aprons are aerially exposed. At certain critical depths, it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits System (TSS), that the Black Sea joins the global ocean system. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is a lake, operating independently of the global ocean system. Currently the Black Sea water level is relatively high, thus water is being exchanged with the
Mediterranean . The TSS connects the Black and Aegean Seas and comprises the Strait ofBosphorus Strait (Strait of Istanbul), the Marmara sea and the Strait ofDardanelles (Strait of Canakkale). The Black Sea also connects to theSea of Azov via theStrait of Kerch Name
Modern names of the Sea are equivalents of the English name, "Black Sea", including _ad. (Ху-щыуцІэ),Greek "Mavri Thalassa" (Μαύρη Θάλασσα), Bulgarian "Cherno more" (Черно море), Georgian "Shavi zghva" (შავი ზღვა), Laz "Ucha Zuğa", or simply "Zuğa" 'Sea', Romanian "Marea Neagră", Russian "Chornoye more" (Чёрное море), Turkish "Karadeniz", Ukrainian "Chorne more" (Чорне море), Ubykh IPA|/ʃʷaʤa/. This name cannot be traced to an earlier date than the thirteenth century, but there are indications that it may be considerably older.
Strabo 's Geography (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called "the Sea" ("ho pontos"). For the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the 'Hospitable sea', "Euxeinos Pontos" (Polytonic|Εὔξεινος Πόντος). This is aeuphemism replacing an earlier 'Inhospitable Sea', "Pontos Axeinos", first attested inPindar (early fifth century BCE,~475 BC). Strabo (7.3.6) thinks that the Black Sea was called "inhospitable" before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes; and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians had colonized, making it part of Greek civilization. It is also possible that the name "Axeinos" arose by popular etymology from aScythian Iranic "axšaina-" 'unlit,' 'dark'; the designation "Black Sea" may thus date from Antiquity. The reason for the name may be an ancient assignment of colours to the direction of the compass — black referring to the north, and red referring to the south.Herodotus on one occasion usesRed Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. [Schmitt 1996]Another possible explanation comes from the colour of the Black Sea's deep waters. Being further north than the
Mediterranean Sea and much less saline, the microalgae concentration is much richer, causing the dark colour. Visibility in the Black Sea is on average approximately five meters (5.5 yd), as compared to up to thirty-five meters (38 yd) in the Mediterranean.Fact|date=August 2008Another explanation comes from the Turkish name: 'Kara (Black)' and 'Ak (White)' are respectively used to denote 'North' and 'South' in Medieval Turkish, as in Akhun Empire, Akkoyunlu and Karakoyunlu Empires, and Akdeniz (lit. 'White Sea', referring to the Mediterranean which lies south of the Medieval Turkish settlements.Fact|date=August 2008
One
Bulgaria n understanding of the name is that the sea used to be quite stormy. Some sources stipulate that it goes back to the time ofNoah's Ark . TheBlack Sea deluge theory is based on that idea.Fact|date=August 2008In
naval science , the Black Sea is thought to have received its name because of itshydrogen sulfide layer that begins about 200 meters below the surface, and supports a unique microbial population which produces black sediments probably due to anaerobic methane oxidation.Fact|date=August 2008Geology and bathymetry
The geological origins of the basin can be traced back to two distinct relict
back-arc basins which were initiated by to the splitting of anAlbian volcanic arc and thesubduction of both the Paleo-and Neo-Tethys Oceans, but the timings of these events remain controversial [McKenzie, D. P. (1970). "Plate Tectonics of the Mediterranean Region." Nature 226(5242): 239-243.] [McClusky, S., S. Balassanian, et al. (2000). "Global Positioning System constraints on plate kinematics and dynamics in the eastern Mediterranean and Caucasus." Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 105(B3): 5695-5719.] . Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led tosubsidence in the basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large-scalevolcanism and numerous orogenies, causing the uplift of the GreatCaucasus ,Pontides , SouthernCrimea andBalkan ides mountain ranges. The ongoing collision between theEurasian andAfrican plates and westward escape of theAnatolian block along the North and East AnatolianFaults dictates the current tectonic regime [Shillington, D. J., N. White, et al. (2008). "Cenozoic evolution of the eastern Black Sea: A test of depth-dependent stretching models." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 265(3-4): 360-378.] , which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region [Nikishin, A. M., M. V. Korotaev, et al. (2003). "The Black Sea basin: tectonic history and Neogene-Quaternary rapid subsidence modelling." Sedimentary Geology 156(1-4): 149-168.] . It is these geological mechanisms which, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system.The modern basin is divided into 2 sub-basins by a convexity extending south from the Crimean Peninsula. The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km wide, and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around
Turkey and the western edge around Georgia, however, are typified by a shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km in width and an apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,206 m just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula [Degens, E. T. a. R., D. A. (1974). Recent sediments of the Black Sea. The Black Sea - Geology, Chemistry and Biology. E. T. a. R. Degens, D. A. Tulsa. 20: 183-199.] .The
littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral.Hydrology and hydrochemistry
The Black Sea is the world’s largest
meromictic basin where the deep waters do not mix with the upper layers ofwater that receiveoxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The current hydrochemical configuration is primarily controlled by basin topography andfluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure and a positive water balance. The upper layers are generally cooler, less dense and less salty than the deeper waters, as they are fed by large fluvial systems, whereas the deep waters originate from the warm, salty waters of the Mediterranean. This influx of dense water from Mediterranean is balanced by an outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Marmara Sea, maintaining the stratification andsalinity levels.The surface water has an average salinity of 18 to 18.5 parts per thousand (compared to 30 to 40 for the oceans) and contains
oxygen and other nutrients required to sustain biotic activity. These waters circulate in a basin-wide cyclonic shelfbreakgyre known as the Rim Current which transports water round the perimeter of the Black Sea. Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. Outside the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed due to upwelling around the coastal apron and ‘wind curl’ mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. The temperature of the surface waters varies seasonally from convert|8|°C|abbr=on|lk=on to convert|30|°C.Directly beneath the surface waters the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL) is found. This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localised atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. The production of this water is focussed in the centre of the major gyres and on the NW shelf and as the water is not dense enough to penetrate the deep waters,
isopycnal advection occurs, dispersing the water across the entire basin. The base of the CIL is marked by a majorthermocline ,halocline andpycnocline at nowrap|~100-200 m and this density disparity is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water.Below the pycnocline, salinity increases to 22 to 22.5 ppt and temperatures rise to around convert|8.5|°C. The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilises all of the free oxygen. Certain species of
extremophile bacteria are capable of usingsulfate (SO42−) in the oxidation of organic material, which leads to the creation ofhydrogen sulfide (H2S). This enables the precipitation ofsulfide s such as the iron sulphidespyrite ,greigite and iron monosulphide, as well as the dissolution of carbonate matter such ascalcium carbonate (CaCO3), found in shells. Organic matter, including anthropogenic artefacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known assapropel s. Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of the region. [ [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/natural_hazards_v2.php3?img_id=3669 Black Sea Becomes Turquoise] earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved2 December 2006 .]Modelling shows the release of hydrogen sulfide clouds in the event of an asteroid impact into the Black Sea would pose a threat to health or even life for people living on the Black Sea coast. [R.D. Schuiling, R.B. Cathcart, V. Badescu, D. Isvoranu and E. Pelinovsky, "Asteroid impact in the Black Sea. Death by drowning or asphyxiation?", Natural Hazards (October 2006) DOI: 10.1007/s11069-006-0017-7]
Ecology
The Black Sea supports a complex ecology in its upper waters, characterised by quasi-
endemic species which thrive in the fresher surface waters, as well as cosmopolitanstenohaline andeuryhaline species. The fluvial systems drainingEurasia and centralEurope introduce large volumes of nutrients in the Black Sea, but distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is in turn dictated by seasonal physiographic development [Oguz, T., H. W. Ducklow, et al. (1999). "A physical-biochemical model of plankton productivity and nitrogen cycling in the Black Sea." Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 46(4): 597-636.] .Phytoplankton blooms occur in surface waters throughout the year, most reliably in the form of aDiatom bloom during March [Sorokin, Y. I. (1983). The Black Sea. Estuaries and Enclosed Seas. Ecosystem of the World. B. H. Ketchum. New York, Elsevier: 253-292.] . However, subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as theanoxic bottom waters act as a sink forreduced nitrate , in the form ofammonia . Somechemosynthetic productivity occurs in the bottom waters, estimated at ~10% ofphotosynthetic productivity [Deuser, W. G. (1971). "ORGANIC-CARBON BUDGET OF BLACK SEA." Deep-Sea Research 18(10): p995] .Climatic Setting
Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the
North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which is a term used to describe the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses [Hurrell, J. W. (1995). "DECADAL TRENDS IN THE NORTH-ATLANTIC OSCILLATION - REGIONAL TEMPERATURES AND PRECIPITATION." SCIENCE 269(5224): 676-679.] . While the exact mechanisms causing the NAO remain unclear [Lamy, F. H. W. A. G. C. B. A. B. and J. Pätzold (2006). "Multicentennial-scale hydrological changes in the Black Sea and northern Red Sea during the Holocene and the Arctic/North Atlantic Oscillation." Paleoceanography 21: PA1008.] , it is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of wintercyclones , which are largely responsible for regionalprecipitation inputs [Turkes, M. (1996). "Spatial and temporal analysis of annual rainfall variations in Turkey." International Journal of Climatology 16(9): 1057-1076.] and influence Mediterranean Sea Surface Temperatures (SST's) [Cullen, H. M., A. Kaplan, et al. (2002). "Impact of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Middle Eastern climate and streamflow." Climatic Change 55(3): 315-338.] . The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter [Ozsoy, E. and U. Unluata (1997). "Oceanography of the Black Sea: a review of some recent results." Earth-Science Reviews 42: 231-272.] . Other influencing factors include the regionaltopography , as depressions and storms systems arriving from theMediterranean are funneled through the low land around theBosphorus ,Pontic andCaucasus mountain ranges acting as wave guides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region [Brody, L. R., Nestor, M.J.R. (1980). Regional Forecasting Aids for the Mediterranean Basin. Handbook for Forecasters in the Mediterranean, Naval Research Laboratory. 2.]Mediterranean connection during the Holocene
While it is agreed that the Black Sea has been a freshwater
lake (at least in upper layers) with a considerably lower level during the last glaciation, its post glacial development into a marine sea is still a subject of intensive study and debate. There are catastrophic scenarios such as put forward by William Ryan (geologist) and Walter Pitman as well as models emphasizing a more gradual transition to saline conditions and transgression in the Black Sea.They are based on different theories about the level the freshwater lake had reached by the time the Mediterranean Sea was high enough to flow over the
Dardanelles and theBosporus . On the other hand, a study of the sea floor on the Aegean side shows that in the 8th millennium BC there was a large flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea. [New Scientist ,4 May 2002 , p.13.]In a series of expeditions, a team of marine archaeologists led by
Robert Ballard identified what appeared to be ancient shorelines, freshwater snail shells, drowned river valleys, tool-worked timbers, and man-made structures in roughly convert|300|ft|m of water off the Black Sea coast of modernTurkey .Radiocarbon dating of freshwater mollusc remains indicated an age of about seven thousand years.Deluge theory
In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman from
Columbia University published a theory according to which a massive flood through theBosporus occurred in ancient times. They claim that the Black andCaspian Sea s were vast freshwater lakes, but then about 5600 BC, the Mediterranean spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus, creating the current communication between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Subsequent work has been done both to support and to discredit this theory, and archaeologists still debate it. This has led some to associate this catastrophe with prehistoric flood myths.History
The Black Sea was a busy waterway on the crossroads of the ancient world: the Balkans to the West, the Eurasian
steppes to the north, Caucasus and Central Asia to the East, Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the south, and Greece to the south-west. The oldest processed gold in the world, arguably left by Old Europeans, was found in Varna, and the Black Sea was supposedly sailed by theArgonauts . The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea,Colchis , (now Georgia), marked for the Greeks an edge of the known world. The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland ("Urheimat ") of the speakers of theProto-Indo-European language , (PIE) the progenitor of the Indo-European language family, by some scholars (seeKurgan ; others move the heartland further east towards theCaspian Sea , yet others toAnatolia ). Numerous ancient ports line Black Sea's coasts, some older than the pyramids [ [http://chadparmet.home.comcast.net/~chadparmet/BlackSea/overview/blacksea.html The Black Sea ] ] .Ancient trade routes in the region are currently being extensively studied by American, Bulgarian, and other scientists. It is widely believed that the Black Sea is packed with archaeology to be found. Perhaps the most promising areas in deepwater archaeology are the quest for submerged prehistoric settlements in the continental shelf and for ancient shipwrecks in the anoxic zone, which are expected to be exceptionally well preserved due to the absence of oxygen.
The Black Sea has witnessed the rivalries of
Hittites ,Carians ,Thracians , Greeks,Persians ,Scythians , Romans,Byzantines ,Goths ,Huns ,Avars ,Bulgars ,Slavs ,Varangians ,Crusaders ,Venetians ,Genovese ,Tatars ,Ottomans , andRussians . The Black Sea was a significant naval theatre of World War I and saw both naval and land battles of the World War II.Holiday resorts and spas
In the years following the end of the
Cold War , the popularity of the Black Sea as a tourist destination has been steadily increasing, particularly inRomania . Overall, tourism at Black Sea resorts has become one of the region's growth industries. [cite web |url=http://www.bulgariansearesorts.com/ |title=Bulgarian Sea Resorts |accessdate=2007-02-02 |format= |work= ] The following is a list of well-known Black Searesort s:columns |width=20em
col1 =
*2 Mai (Romania)
*Agigea (Romania)
*Ahtopol (Bulgaria)
*Anapa (Russia)
*Albena (Bulgaria)
*Alupka (Crimea, Ukraine)
*Alushta (Crimea, Ukraine)
*Balchik (Bulgaria)
*Batumi (Georgia)
*Burgas (Bulgaria)
*Byala (Bulgaria)
*Constantine and Helena (Bulgaria)
*Corbu (Romania)
*Costineşti (Romania)
*Eforie Nord (Romania)
*Eforie Sud (Romania)
*Emona (Bulgaria)
*Eupatoria (Crimea, Ukraine)
*Feodosiya (Crimea, Ukraine)
*Giresun (Turkey)
*Gagra (Abkhazia, Georgia1)
*Gelendzhik (Russia)
*Golden Sands (Bulgaria)
*Gonio (Georgia)
*Gurzuf (Crimea, Ukraine)
*Jupiter (Romania)
*Kamchia (Bulgaria)
*Kavarna (Bulgaria)
*Kiten (Bulgaria)
*Kobuleti (Georgia)
*Koktebel (Crimea, Ukraine)
col2 =
*Lozenetz (Bulgaria)
*Mamaia (Romania)
*Mangalia (Romania)
*Năvodari (Romania)
*Neptun (Romania)
*Nesebar (Bulgaria)
*Novorossiysk (Russia)
*Ordu (Turkey)
*Obzor (Bulgaria)
*Odessa (Ukraine)
*Olimp (Romania)
*Pitsunda (Abkhazia, Georgia1)
*Pomorie (Bulgaria)
*Primorsko (Bulgaria)
*Rize (Turkey)
*Rusalka (Bulgaria)
*Samsun (Turkey)
*Saturn (Romania)
*Sinop (Turkey)
*Sochi (Russia)
*Sozopol (Bulgaria)
*Sudak (Crimea, Ukraine)
*Sulina (Romania)
*Sunny Beach (Bulgaria)
*Şile (Turkey)
*Sveti Vlas (Bulgaria)
*Trabzon (Turkey)
*Tuapse (Russia)
*Vama Veche (Romania)
*Venus (Romania)
*Yalta (Crimea, Ukraine)1Abkhazia has been a "de facto " independent republic since 1992, although remains a "de jure " autonomous republic of Georgia.Regional organizations
See also the Balkans Regional organizations and Post-Soviet Regional organizations
ee also
*
Anoxic event
*Black Sea deluge theory
*Bulgarian Black Sea Coast
* Romanian Black Sea Coast
*Ancomah
*Tourism
*1927 Crimean earthquakes
*Black Sea Games References
Bibliography
* Stella Ghervas, "Odessa et les confins de l'Europe: un éclairage historique", in Stella Ghervas et François Rosset (ed), "Lieux d'Europe. Mythes et limites", Paris, Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 2008. ISBN 978-2-7351-1182-4
* Charles King, "The Black Sea: A History", 2004, ISBN 0-19-924161-9
* William Ryan and Walter Pitman, "Noah's Flood", 1999, ISBN 0-684-85920-3
*Neal Ascherson , "Black Sea" (Vintage 1996), ISBN 0-09-959371-8
*Özhan Öztürk . Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük (Black Sea: Encyclopedic Dictionary). 2 Cilt (2 Volumes). Heyamola Publishing. Istanbul.2005 ISBN 975-6121-00-9.
* Rüdiger Schmitt, "Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea", in: "Hellas und der griechische Osten" (Saarbrücken 1996), pp. 219–224
* West, Stephanie. "‘The Most Marvellous of All Seas’: the Greek Encounter with the Euxine", "Greece & Rome", Vol. 50, Issue 2 (2003), pp. 151–167.
External links
* [http://www.BlackSea-online.com/eng Space Monitoring of the Black Sea Coastline and Waters]
* [http://www.mapofukraine.net/crimean_peninsula/black_sea/crimea_black_sea_coast.html Pictures of the Black sea coast all along the Crimean peninsula]
* [http://blacksea.orlyonok.ru/blacksea.shtml Black Sea Environment and Marine Life - Learning Pages]
* [http://www.blacksea-archaeology.org/en/zaks_en.html The Center for Black Sea Archaeology]
* [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Sinop/SinopIntro.htm The Black Sea Trade Project]
* [http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_blacksea.html Earth from Space: Black Sea]
* [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/blacksea/ National Geographic Society]
* [http://www.grid.unep.ch/bsein/ Black Sea Environmental Internet Node]
* [http://sealevel.ns.ca/igcp521/ Black Sea-Mediterranean Corridor during the last 30 ky: UNESCO IGCP 521 WG12]
* [http://www.karalahana.com/english.html All about the Black Sea region Pontus]
* [http://www.trabzon.org/ Trabzon]
* [http://www.constanta.ro/ Constanţa]
*Fact|date=August 2008
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