Nuclear submarine

USS Michigan: An Ohio-class guided missile submarine.

A nuclear submarine is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor (see also nuclear marine propulsion). The performance advantages of nuclear submarines over "conventional" (typically diesel-electric) submarines are considerable: nuclear propulsion, being completely independent of air, frees the submarine from the need to surface frequently, as is necessary for conventional submarines; the large amount of power generated by a nuclear reactor allows nuclear submarines to operate at high speed for long durations; and the long interval between refuellings grants a range limited only by consumables such as food. Current generations of nuclear submarines never need to be refueled throughout their 25-year lifespans.^[1] Conversely, the limited power stored in electric batteries means that even the most advanced conventional submarine can only remain submerged for a few days at slow speed, and only a few hours at top speed; recent advances in air-independent propulsion have eroded this disadvantage somewhat. The high cost of nuclear technology means that relatively few states have fielded nuclear submarines. Some of the most serious nuclear and radiation accidents in the world have involved Soviet nuclear submarine mishaps.^[2][3]

History

USS Nautilus (SSN-571), the first nuclear powered submarine.

The idea for a nuclear-powered submarine was first proposed by the Naval Research Laboratory's Ross Gunn^[4] in 1939.

The United States launched the USS Nautilus, the first nuclear submarine, in 1954.^[5] Nautilus could remain underwater for up to four months without resurfacing.

Construction of the Nautilus was made possible by the successful development of a nuclear propulsion plant by a group of scientists and engineers at the Naval Reactors Branch of the Atomic Energy Commission. In July 1951, the U.S. Congress authorized construction of the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, under the leadership of Captain Hyman G. Rickover, USN.^[6]

The Westinghouse Corporation was assigned to build its reactor. After the submarine was completed, Mamie Eisenhower broke the traditional bottle of champagne on Nautilus' bow. On January 17, 1955, it began its sea trials after leaving its dock in Groton, Connecticut. The submarine was 320 feet long, and cost about $55 million.

The Soviet Union soon followed the United States in developing nuclear-powered submarines in the 1950s. Stimulated by the U.S. development of the Nautilus, Soviet work on nuclear propulsion reactors began in the early 1950s at the Institute of Physics and Power Engineering, in Obninsk, under Anatoliy P. Alexandrov, later to become head of the Kurchatov Institute. In 1956, the first Soviet propulsion reactor designed by his team began operational testing. Meanwhile, a design team under Vladimir N. Peregudov worked on the vessel that would house the reactor.

After overcoming many obstacles, including steam generation problems, radiation leaks, and other difficulties, the first nuclear submarine based on these combined efforts entered service in the Soviet Navy in 1958.^[7]

The VMF Typhoon class submarine, is nuclear powered and the world's largest-displacement submarine.^[8]

At the height of the Cold War, approximately five to ten nuclear submarines were being commissioned from each of the four Soviet submarine yards (Sevmash in Severodvinsk, Admiralteyskiye Verfi in St. Petersburg, Krasnoye Sormovo in Nizhny Novgorod, and Amurskiy Zavod in Komsomolsk-on-Amur). From the late 1950s through the end of 1997, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, built a total of 245 nuclear submarines, more than all other nations combined.^[9]

Today, six countries deploy some form of nuclear-powered strategic submarines: the United States, Russia, France, the United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, and India.^[10] Several other countries, including Argentina and Brazil,^[11][12] have ongoing projects in different phases to build nuclear-powered submarines.

In the United Kingdom, all former and current nuclear submarines for the Royal Navy (with the exception of three: HMS Conqueror, HMS Renown and HMS Revenge) have been constructed in Barrow-in-Furness (at BAE Systems Submarine Solutions or its predecessor VSEL) where construction of nuclear submarines continues. Conqueror is^[update] the only nuclear-powered submarine ever to have engaged an enemy ship with torpedoes, sinking the cruiser ARA General Belgrano with two Mark 8 torpedoes during the 1982 Falklands War.^{[note 1]}

Technology

HMS Astute, an advanced nuclear powered attack submarine.^[13]

The main difference between conventional submarines and nuclear submarines is the power generation system. Nuclear submarines employ nuclear reactors for this task. They either generate electricity that powers electric motors connected to the propeller shaft or rely on the reactor heat to produce steam that drives steam turbines (cf. nuclear marine propulsion). Reactors used in submarines typically use highly enriched fuel (often greater than 20%) to enable them to deliver a large amount of power from a smaller reactor.

The nuclear reactor also supplies power to the submarine's other subsystems, such as for maintenance of air quality, fresh water production by distilling salt water from the ocean, temperature regulation, etc. All naval nuclear reactors currently in use are operated with diesel generators as a backup power system. These engines are able to provide emergency electrical power for reactor decay heat removal as well as enough electric power to supply an emergency propulsion mechanism. Submarines may carry nuclear fuel for up to 30 years of operation. The only resource that limits the time underwater is the food supply for the crew and maintenance of the vessel.

The stealth weakness of nuclear submarines is the need to cool the reactor even when the submarine is not moving; about 70% of the reactor output heat is coupled into the sea water. This leaves a "thermal wake", a plume of warm water of lower density which ascends to the sea surface and creates a "thermal scar" observable by thermal imaging systems, e.g. FLIR.^[14]

Lineage

United States Navy

Decommissioned

• SCB-64: USS Nautilus (SSN-571)
• SCB-64A: USS Seawolf (SSN-575)
• SCB-121: Skate class attack submarines
• SCB-132: USS Triton (SSRN-586)
• SCB-137A: USS Halibut (SSGN-587)
• SCB-154: Skipjack class attack submarines
• SCB-178: USS Tullibee (SSN-597)
• SCB-180A: George Washington class ballistic missile submarines
• SCB-180: Ethan Allen class ballistic missile submarines
• SCB-188: Permit class attack submarines
• SCB-188A: Sturgeon class attack submarines
• SCB-216: Lafayette class ballistic missile submarines
• SCB-216: James Madison class ballistic missile submarines
• SCB-216: Benjamin Franklin class ballistic missile submarines
• NR-1
• SCB-245: USS Narwhal (SSN-671)
• SCB-302: USS Glenard P. Lipscomb (SSN-685)

Operational

• SCB-303: Los Angeles class attack submarines
• SCB-304: Ohio class ballistic missile submarines
• Seawolf class attack submarines
• Virginia class attack submarines

Soviet / Russian Navy

Decommissioned

• Project 627 (November) attack submarines
• Project 645 test attack submarine K-27
• Project 658 (Hotel) ballistic missile submarines
• Project 659/675 (Echo) cruise missile submarines
• Project 661 (Papa) attack submarines
• Project 667 (Yankee) ballistic missile submarines
• Project 667B, Murena (Delta I) ballistic missile submarines
• Project 667BD, Murena-M (Delta II) ballistic missile submarines
• Project 670 (Charlie) cruise missile submarines
• Project 671 (Victor) attack submarines
• Project 678 (X-Ray) research submersible
• Project 685 (Mike) attack submarine K-278 Komsomolets
• Project 705 (Alfa) attack submarines

Operational submarines

• Project 941 (Typhoon) ballistic missile submarines
• Project 945 (Sierra) attack submarines
• Project 949 (Oscar) cruise missile submarines
• Project 667BDR, Kalmar (Delta III) ballistic missile submarines
• Project 667BDRM, Delfin (Delta IV) ballistic missile submarines
• Project 1910 (Uniform) special purpose submarines
• Project 971 (Akula) attack submarines
• Project 671RTM Shchuka (Victor III) attack submarines

Under development

• Project 885 (Graney) attack submarines (In development)
• Project 935 (Borei) ballistic missile submarines (Sea trials)

Royal Navy of the United Kingdom

Decommissioned

• HMS Dreadnought (S101)
• Valiant class attack submarines
• Resolution class ballistic missile submarines
• Churchill class attack submarines
• Swiftsure class attack submarines

Operational

• Trafalgar class attack submarines
• Vanguard class ballistic missile submarines
• Astute class attack submarines

French Navy

Decommissioned

• Redoutable class ballistic missile submarines

Operational

• Rubis class attack submarines
• Triomphant class ballistic missile submarines

Under development

• Barracuda class attack submarines (In development)

People's Liberation Army Navy of the People's Republic of China

Operational

• Type 091 (Han) attack submarines
• Type 092 (Xia) ballistic missile submarines
• Type 093 (Shang) attack submarines
• Type 094 (Jin) ballistic missile submarines

Under development

• Type 095 attack submarines (In development)
• Type 096 (Tang) ballistic missile submarines (In development)

Indian Navy

Commissioned

• INS Chakra (Leased from Russia)

Under development

• INS Arihant, currently undergoing sea-trials. Scheduled to be operational in 2012.

Accidents

See also: List of sunken nuclear submarines

Some of the most serious nuclear and radiation accidents in the world have involved Soviet nuclear submarine mishaps.^[2][3] Notable nuclear submarine accidents include:

• K-19, 4 July 1961, the reactor almost had a meltdown and exploded, resulting in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people being over-exposed to radiation.^[15] The events on board the submarine are dramatized by the film K-19: The Widowmaker.
• USS Thresher (SSN-593), 1963, was lost during deep diving tests and later investigation concluded that failure of a brazed pipe joint and ice formation in the ballast blow valves prevented surfacing. The accident motivated a number of safety changes to the US fleet.
• USS Scorpion (SSN-589), 1968, lost.
• K-27, 24 May 1968, experienced a near meltdown of one of its liquid metal (lead-bismuth) cooled VT-1 reactors, resulting in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries.^[2] The ship was deactivated by 20 July 1968.
• K-431 reactor accident on 10 August 1985 resulted in 10 fatalities and 49 other people suffered radiation injuries.^[3]
• K-219, 1986, the reactor almost had a meltdown. Sergei Preminin died after he manually lowered the control rods, and stopped the explosion. The submarine sank three days later.
• K-278 Komsomolets, 1989, Soviet submarine sank in Barents Sea due to a fire.
• K-141 Kursk, 2000, the generally accepted theory is that a leak of hydrogen peroxide in the forward torpedo room led to the detonation of a torpedo warhead, which in turn triggered the explosion of half a dozen other warheads about two minutes later.
• Ehime Maru & USS Greeneville, February 2001, the American submarine surfaced underneath the Japanese training vessel. Nine Japanese were killed when their ship sank as a result of the collision.^[16]
• USS San Francisco (SSN-711), 2005, collided with a seamount in the Pacific Ocean. A crew member was killed and 23 others were injured.
• HMS Vanguard & Le Triomphant, February 2009, the French and British submarines collided in the Atlantic while on routine patrols. There were no injuries among the crews, but both ships were damaged during the collision.

See also

• Ballistic missile submarine
• List of nuclear submarines
• Submarine
• SSN (hull classification symbol)

References

1. ^ The only other submarine to sink a warship since World War II is the Pakistani Navy's PNS Hangor.

1. ^ Naval Technology - SSN Astute Class - Attack Submarine
2. ^ ^{a b c} Johnston, Robert (September 23, 2007). "Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties". Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events. http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/radevents1.html. 
3. ^ ^{a b c} The Worst Nuclear Disasters
4. ^ NRL Little Book of Achievements
5. ^ USS Nautilus (SSN-571)
6. ^ Nuclear Propulsion
7. ^ Submarine History 1945-2000: A Timeline of Development
8. ^ Submarine Milestones -- Largest Subs; 1981: Typhoon Class (Soviet and Russian) National Geographic
9. ^ CNS - Resources on Russian Nuclear Submarines
10. ^ NTI: Submarine Proliferation
11. ^ "Argentina, Brazil eye joint project for nuclear submarine". The Times of India. 25 February 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-03-01. http://web.archive.org/web/20080301075139/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/World/Rest_of_World/Argentina_Brazil_eye_joint_project_for_nuclear_submarine/articleshow/2811118.cms. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
12. ^ Sarah Diehl and Eduardo Fujii (March 2008). Brazil’s Pursuit of a Nuclear Submarine Raises Proliferation Concerns. WMD Insights. http://www.wmdinsights.com/I23/I23_LA1_BrazilPursuit.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
13. ^ "Exclusive: Royal Navy's most advanced submarine HMS Astute set for home on the River Clyde". Daily Record. 13 November 2009. http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/editors-choice/2009/11/13/exclusive-royal-navy-s-most-advanced-submarine-hms-astute-set-for-home-on-the-river-clyde-86908-21818475/. Retrieved 20 November 2009. 
14. ^ Samuel Upton Newtan Nuclear War I and Other Major Nuclear Disasters of the 20th Century p.291, AuthorHouse, 2007 ISBN 9781425985110
15. ^ Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources p. 14.
16. ^ Ehime Maru and USS Greeneville collision

Suggested Reading

• Erickson, Andrew Erickson; Lyle Goldstein (Winter 2007). "China's Future Nuclear Submarine Force: Insights from Chinese Writings". Naval War College Review 60 (1): 54–79. http://www.usnwc.edu/cnws/cmsi/documents/Erickson-Goldstein_China's%20Future%20Nuclear%20Submarine%20Force_NWCR_2007-01.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-25. ^{[dead link]}
• Polmar, Norman and Moore, J.K. (2004). Cold War Submarines: The Design and Construction of U.S. and Soviet Submarines (Paperback ed.). Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc. ISBN 1574885308. 

External links

• Nuclear Propulsion - Federation of American Scientists
• V.M. Bukhalov - Atomic-powered submarine design