Morchella

"Morel" redirects here. For other uses, see Morel (disambiguation).

Morel
A black morel in Poland
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Fungi
Division:	Ascomycota
Subdivision:	Pezizomycotina
Class:	Pezizomycetes
Order:	Pezizales
Family:	Morchellaceae
Genus:	Morchella Dill. ex Pers. (1794)
Type species
Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers. (1801)
Species
Uncertain (see text)

Morchella
Mycological characteristics
	smooth hymenium
	cap is conical or ovate
	hymenium attachment is irregular or not applicable
	lacks a stipe
	spore print is cream to yellow
	ecology is mycorrhizal or saprotrophic
	edibility: choice

Morchella, the true morels, is a genus of edible mushrooms closely related to anatomically simpler cup fungi. These distinctive mushrooms appear honeycomb-like in that the upper portion is composed of a network of ridges with pits between them.

These ascocarps are prized by gourmet cooks, particularly for French cuisine. Commercial value aside, morels are hunted by thousands of people every year simply for their taste and the joy of the hunt.

Morels have been called by many local names; some of the more colorful include dryland fish, because when sliced lengthwise then breaded and fried, their outline resembles the shape of a fish; hickory chickens, as they are known in many parts of Kentucky; and merkels or miracles, based on a story of how a mountain family was saved from starvation by eating morels (the spelling "merkel" reflects a corruption of the word "miracle" as spoken with an Appalachian dialect common to SW Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky area).^{[citation needed]} In parts of West Virginia, they are known as "molly moochers." Other common names for morels include sponge mushroom. Genus Morchella is derived from morchel, an old German word for mushroom, while morel itself is derived from the Latin maurus meaning brown.

Classification

Taxonomy

The fruit bodies of the Morchella are highly polymorphic in appearance, exhibiting variations in shape, color and size; this has contributed to uncertainties regarding taxonomy.^[1] Discriminating between the various species is complicated by uncertainty regarding which species are truly biologically distinct. Some authors suggest that the genus only contains as few as 3 to 6 species,^[2][3] while others place up to 50 species in the genus.^[4][5] Mushroom hunters refer to them by their color (e.g., gray, yellow, black) as the species are very similar in appearance and vary considerably within species and age of individual. The best known morels are the "yellow morel" or "common morel" (M. esculenta); the "white morel" (M. deliciosa); and the "black morel" (M. elata). Other species of true morels include M. conica, M. vulgaris, and the half-free morel (M. semilibera).

Phylogeny

Early phylogenetic analyses supported the hypothesis that the genus comprises only a few species with considerable phenotypic variation.^[6][7] More recent DNA work has suggested more than a dozen distinct groups of morels in North America.^[8] An extensive DNA study showed three discrete clades, or genetic groups, consisting of Morchella rufobrunnea, the yellow morels (M. esculenta and others), and the black morels (M. elata and others). Within the yellow and black clades, there are dozens of individual species, most endemic to individual continents or regions.^[9] This species-rich view is supported by studies in Western Europe,^[10] Turkey,^[11] Israel,^[12] and the Himalayas.^[13]

Morchella tomentosa, a fire-associated species described from western North America, commonly known as the "gray morel", may also deserve its own clade based on DNA evidence. M. tomentosa is easily identified by its post-fire occurrence, fine hairs on the surface of young fruiting bodies, and unique sclerotia-like underground parts.^[14][15][16]

Habitat and ecology

Yellow morels in West Virginia, USA

Habitats favorable to fruition

Morchella species appear to have either symbiotic mycorrhizal relationships or act as saprotrophs.^[17][14] Yellow morels (Morchella esculenta) are more commonly found under deciduous trees rather than conifers, and black morels (Morchella elata) can be found in deciduous forests, oak and poplar.^[18] Deciduous trees commonly associated with morels in the northern hemisphere include ash, sycamore, tulip tree, dead and dying elms, cottonwoods and old apple trees (remnants of orchards). The fruiting of yellow morels in Missouri, USA, was found to correlate with warm weather, precipitation, and tree species, and most usually in the springtime (April-May time frame).^[19]

Morels in western North America are often found in coniferous forests, including trees in the genera Pinus, Abies, Larix, and Pseudotsuga, as well as in cottonwood riparian forests.^[20]

Association with wildfire

Black morels in British Columbia, Canada

Black morels may grow abundantly in forests which have been burned by a forest fire.^[21] The mechanism for this behavior is not well known,^[14] but appears to be related to both the death of trees and the removal of organic material on the forest floor.^[22] Moderate-intensity fires are reported to produce higher abundances of morels than low or high intensities.^[16] Where fire suppression is practiced morels often grow in small amounts in the same spot year after year. If these areas are overrun by wildfire they often produce a bumper crop of black morels the following spring. Commercial pickers and buyers in North America target recently burned areas for this reason. The Finnish name, huhtasieni, refers to huhta, area cleared for agriculture by slash and burn method. These spots may be jealously guarded by mushroom pickers, as the mushrooms are a delicacy and sometimes a cash crop.^[20]

Efforts to grow morels are rarely successful and the commercial morel industry is based on harvest of wild mushrooms.^[20]

False morels

Main article: false morel

When gathering morels, care must be taken to distinguish them from the poisonous false morels, including Gyromitra esculenta, Verpa bohemica, and others. Although the false morels are sometimes eaten without ill effect, they can cause severe gastrointestinal upset and loss of muscular coordination (including cardiac muscle) if eaten in large quantities or over several days in a row. They contain a gyromitrin-like toxin (an organic, carcinogenic poison) that is produced by the mushroom.

The false morels can be told apart from the true morels by careful study of the cap, which is often "wrinkled" or "brainy", rather than honeycomb or net-like. Gyromitra esculenta has a cap that is generally darker and larger than the true morels (Morchella sp.). The caps of early morels (Verpa sp.) are attached only at apex (top) of cap, unlike true morels which have caps that are attached at or near the bottom. The easiest way to tell the false from the true variety, is to simply look inside the stem. False morels contain a cotton-ball looking substance inside their stem while true morels are hollow inside.

Cooking

Yellow morels in France

Longneck morel in Indiana, USA

Morels occasionally contain insect larvae that drop out during the drying process.^[23] Morels are a feature of many cuisines, including Provençal.^[24] Their unique flavor is prized by cooks worldwide, with recipes and preparation methods designed to highlight and preserve it. As with most edible fungi, they are best when collected or bought fresh.

One of the best and simplest ways to enjoy morels is by gently sauteeing them in butter, cracking pepper on top and sprinkling with salt. Others soak the mushrooms in an egg batter and lightly bread them with saltine crackers or flour before frying them.

Morels are not improved by extensive washing or soaking, as it may ruin the delicate flavor and require long cooking times. Due to their natural porosity, morels may contain trace amounts of soil which cannot be washed out. They can best be 'flash frozen' by simply running under cold water or putting them in a bucket to soak for a few minutes, then place on a cookie sheet or pizza pan and place into a freezer. After freezing they keep very fresh with the frozen glaze for a long time in Tupperware containers. However, when thawed they can sometimes turn slightly mushy in the cap.^[25] Any visible soil should be removed with a brush, after cutting the body in half lengthwise if needed.

Drying is a popular and effective method of long-term storage for morels, and they are readily available commercially in this form; dried morels can be reconstituted by soaking in warm water or milk. They may also be frozen after steaming or frying. Canning is not recommended because the necessary high pressure and temperature destroys much of the nutty flavor.

Toxicity

Morels contain small amounts of hydrazine^[26] toxins that are removed by thorough cooking; morel mushrooms should never be eaten raw.^[27] It has been reported that even cooked morels can sometimes cause mild intoxication symptoms when consumed with alcohol.^[28]

When eating this mushroom for the first time it is wise to consume a small amount to minimize any allergic reaction. Morels for consumption must be clean and free of decay.

Morels growing in old apple orchards that had been treated with the insecticide lead arsenate may accumulate levels of toxic lead and arsenic that are unhealthy for human consumption.^[29]

See also

Fungi portal

References

^[30]

1. ^ Segula Masaphy, Limor Zabari, Doron Goldberg, and Gurinaz Jander-Shagug (Spring 2010). "The Complexity of Morchella Systematics: A Case of the Yellow Morel from Israel". Fungi Magazine 3 (2): 14–18. http://www.fungimag.com/special-spring-2010-articles/YellowMorel.pdf. 
2. ^ Overholts, L.O. (1934). The morels of Pennsylvania. Proc. Penn. Acad. Sci. 8:108-114.
3. ^ Weber, N.S. (1988). In A Morel Hunter's Companion, pp. 111-67. Two Peninsula Press: Lansing.
4. ^ Korf, R.P. (1973). Discomycetes and Tuberales. In The Fungi (G.C. Ainsworth, F.K. Sparrow, and A.S. Sussman, Eds.), Vol. IVA, pp.249-318. Academic Press: New York.
5. ^ Kimbrough, J.W. (1970). Current trends in the classification of discomycetes. Bot. Rev. 36:91-161.
6. ^ Bunyard, B.A., Nicholson, M.S., Royse, D.J. (1994). A systematic assessment of Morchella using RFLP analysis of the 28S ribosomal gene. Mycologia 86:762-72.
7. ^ Bunyard B.A., Nicholson M.S., Royse D.J. (1995). Phylogenetic resolution of Morchella, Verpa, andDisciotis (Pezizales: Morchellaceae) based on restriction enzyme analysis of the 28S ribosomal RNA gene. Experimental Mycology 19(3):223-33.
8. ^ Kuo, M. (March 2006). "Morel Data Collection Project: Preliminary results". http://www.mushroomexpert.com/mdcp/ndex.html. Retrieved 2009-05-26. 
9. ^ O'Donnell K, Rooney AP, Mills GL, Kuo M, Weber NS, Rehner SA (Mar 2011). "Phylogeny and historical biogeography of true morels (Morchella) reveals an early Cretaceous origin and high continental endemism and provincialism in the Holarctic". Fungal Genetics and Biology 48 (3): 252–265. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2010.09.006. PMID 20888422. 
10. ^ Harald Kellner, Carsten Renker, and François Buscot (2005). "Species diversity within the Morchella esculenta group (Ascomycota: Morchellaceae) in Germany and France". Organisms, Diversity & Evolution 5 (2): 101–107. doi:10.1016/j.ode.2004.07.001. http://www.osiris.ufz.de/data/Kellner%202005%20Morchella%20Germany%20and%20France3634.pdf. 
11. ^ Hatıra Taşkına, Saadet Büyükalacaa, Hasan Hüseyin Doğanb, Stephen A. Rehnerc and Kerry O’Donnell (Aug 2010). "A multigene molecular phylogenetic assessment of true morels (Morchella) in Turkey". Fungal Genetics and Biology 47 (8): 672–682. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2010.05.004. PMID 20580850. 
12. ^ S. Masaphy, L. Zabari and D. Goldberg (2009). "New long-season ecotype of Morchella rufobrunnea from northern Israel". Micologia Aplicada International 21 (2): 45–55. http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/685/68511349005.pdf. 
13. ^ Kanwal HK, Acharya K, Ramesh G, Reddy MS (Dec 25, 2010). "Molecular Characterization of Morchella Species from the Western Himalayan Region of India". Current Microbiology 62 (4): 1245–1252. doi:10.1007/s00284-010-9849-1. PMID 21188589. 
14. ^ ^{a b c} Franck O.P. Stefani, Serge Sokolski, Trish L. Wurtz, Yves Piché, Richard C. Hamelin, J. André Fortin, and Jean A. Bérubé (2010). "Morchella tomentosa: a unique belowground structure and a new clade of morels". Mycologia 102 (5): 1082–1088. doi:10.3852/09-294. PMID 20943507. http://www.lter.uaf.edu/pdf/1515_Stefani_Sokolski_2010.pdf. 
15. ^ Michael Kuo (July–Sept 2008). "Morchella tomentosa, a new species from western North America, and notes on M. rufobrunnea". Mycotaxon 105: 441–446. http://www.mushroomexpert.com/Kuo_M_2008_Morchella_tomentosa.pdf. 
16. ^ ^{a b} McFarlane, Erika M.; Pilz, David; Weber, Nancy S. (May 2005). "High-elevation gray morels and other Morchella species harvested as non-timber forest products in Idaho and Montana". Mycologist 19 (2): 62–68. doi:10.1017/S0269915X0500203X. http://www.fsl.orst.edu/mycology/PilzPage_files/McFarlandEtal05GrayMorels.pdf. 
17. ^ J. L. Dahlstrom, J. E. Smith and N. S. Weber (2000). "Mycorrhiza-like interaction by Morchella with species of the Pinaceae in pure culture synthesis". Mycorrhiza 9 (5): 279–285. doi:10.1007/PL00009992. 
18. ^ Lincoff, Gary H., The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mushrooms (1981) p 326.
19. ^ Jeanne D. Mihail, Johann N. Bruhn, and Pierluigi Bonello (March 2007). "Spatial and temporal patterns of morel fruiting". Mycological Research 111 (3): 339–346. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.01.007. 
20. ^ ^{a b c} Pilz, D.; R. McLain, S. Alexander, L. Villarreal-Ruiz, S. Berch, T.L. Wurtz, C.G. Parks, E. McFarlane, B. Baker, R. Molina, J.E. Smith (March 2007). Ecology and management of morels harvested from the forests of western North America. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-710. Portland, OR: U.S. Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station. http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/publications/gtr710/. 
21. ^ Wurtz, Tricia L.; Wiita, Amy L.; Weber, Nancy S.; Pilz, David (2005). Harvesting morels after wildfire in Alaska. Research Note RN-PNW-546. Portland, OR: U.S. Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/viewpub.jsp?index=8483. 
22. ^ David F. Greene, Michael Hesketh, and Edith Pounden (2010). "Emergence of morel (Morchella) and pixie cup (Geopyxis carbonaria) ascocarps in response to the intensity of forest floor combustion during a wildfire". Mycologia 102 (4): 766–773. doi:10.3852/08-096. PMID 20648745. 
23. ^ http://www.mssf.org/cookbook/morels.html.
24. ^ Olney, Richard (1995). A Provencal Table. London: Pavilion. pp. 31–32. ISBN 1-85793-632-9. 
25. ^ Quamut.com, Morel Mushrooms
26. ^ Paul Stamets Mycelium Running pg 271. (2005)
27. ^ Ian R. Hall, Peter K. Buchanan (2003). Edible and poisonous mushrooms of the world. Timber Press. ISBN 0881925861
28. ^ J. Walton Groves. Poisoning by Morels When Taken with Alcohol. Mycologia, Vol. 56, No. 5 (Sep. - October, 1964), pp. 779-780
29. ^ Shavit, Elinoar; Shavit, Efrat (Spring 2010). "Lead and Arsenic in Morchella esculenta Fruitbodies Collected in Lead Arsenate Contaminated Apple Orchards in the Northeastern United States: A Preliminary Study". Fungi Magazine 3 (2): 11–18. http://www.fungimag.com/winter-2010-articles/shavit-morels.pdf. 
30. ^ http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=176534462406054&set=a.133247203401447.22611.133226753403492&type=1&theater

External links

• MushroomExpert.com's Morel section
• Healing-mushrooms.net's Morel page
• Morel Satisfaction: Stalking the Wild Mushroom from National Public Radio
• Morel Mushroom Discussion Forum
• Morel of the Story, It's Spring: Grist
• Morel Mushrooms Nutrition Information from USDA SR 22 database
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