2010–2011 Haiti cholera outbreak

2010–2011 Haiti cholera outbreak
2010–2011 Haiti cholera outbreak
Date October 2010
Location Artibonite Valley, Haiti
Casualties
6,000+ dead[1]
117,312 hospitalised[2]
344,623 total cases[1]

The Haiti cholera outbreak is an cholera outbreak that began in late October 2010 in the rural Artibonite Department of Haiti,[3] about 100 kilometres (62 mi) north of the capital, Port-au-Prince, killing 4672 people by March 2011[4] and hospitalising thousands more.[5] The outbreak followed a powerful earthquake which devastated the country on 12 January 2010.

By March 2011, some 4,672 people have died and 252,640 cases had been reported.[6] By the first 10 weeks of the epidemic, cholera spread to all of Haiti's 10 departments or provinces.[7] In November 2010, the first cases of cholera were reported in the Dominican Republic and a single case in Florida, United States; in January 2011 a few cases were reported in Venezuela. As of late September, 2011, some 6,435 deaths have been reported and is expected to continue rising.[8] Neighboring Dominican Republic has reported 135 cholera deaths as well.

Contents

Background

During the 1900s, six major cholera pandemics had spread around the world. At the time of this outbreak, the world was experiencing the seventh, caused by a new strain of the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, El Tor. Epidemics involving this strain started in 1961 in Indonesia, and spread rapidly elsewhere in eastern Asia and then to India and Bangladesh, the USSR, Iran and Iraq.[9] This was the first outbreak in Haiti in over 50 years.[10]

On October 21, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) confirmed that cases of diarrheal illness that hospitals in the Artibonite region had been receiving had been identified as cholera.[11] The outbreak represented the first significant occurrence of cholera in Haiti for half a century, and as a result, it triggered panic and confusion in the populace, complicating relief efforts.[12]

According to the US CDC, in most instances cholera does not spread widely within countries where drinking water and sewage treatment are adequate. When water and sewage treatment is inadequate, as in Haiti after the 2010 earthquake, cholera can spread rapidly.[13]

Source

The suspected source for the epidemic was the Artibonite River, from which some of the affected people had drunk water.[5] A UN team investigated samples of a suspected sewage spill from a Nepali peacekeeping base that may have infected the river system. Vincenzo Pugliese of MINUSTAH confirmed that the tests were positive for cholera.[14] The US CDC said its tests of "DNA fingerprinting" showed various samples of cholera from Haitian patients were identified as Vibrio cholerae serogroup O1, serotype Ogawa, a strain found in South Asia.[13][15][16]

Gregory Hartl, a spokesman for the World Health Organization (WHO), said finding the cause of the outbreak was "not important". "Right now, there is no active investigation. I cannot say one way or another [if there will be]. It is not something we are thinking about at the moment. What we are thinking about is the public health response in Haiti."[17] Jordan Tappero, the lead epidemiologist at the CDC, said the main task was to control the outbreak, not to look for the source of the bacteria and that "we may never know the actual origin of this cholera strain."[18] A CDC spokesperson, Kathryn Harben, added that "at some point in the future, when many different analyses of the strain are complete, it may be possible to identify the origin of the strain causing the outbreak in Haiti." Paul Farmer, a co-founder of the medical organisation Partners in Health, however, said there was no reason to wait. "The idea that we'd never know is not very likely. There's got to be a way to know the truth without pointing fingers." A cholera expert, John Mekalanos, supported the assertion that it was important to know where and how the disease emerged because the strain is a "novel, virulent strain previously unknown in the Western Hemisphere and health officials need to know how it spreads."[13] The Swedish ambassador to Haiti said the epidemic had strains originating in Nepal.[19] However, Nepal's representative to the United Nations "categorically refuted" the hypothesis that Nepali peacekeepers were the source of the outbreak.[20]

Three US professors or other employees at major US universities disagreed with the contention that the Nepali soldiers were the source of the outbreak, saying that they believed it was more likely dormant cholera bacteria had been aroused by various environmental incidents in Haiti.[21] They said a sequence of events, including changes in climate triggered by the La Niña climate pattern and unsanitary living conditions for those affected by the earthquake, triggered bacteria already present to multiply and infect humans.[21] However, a later study conducted by French epidemiologist Renaud Piarroux contended that UN troops from Nepal had started the epidemic as waste from outhouses at their base flowed into and contaminated the Artibonite River.[22]

Following the claims the UN said it would investigate the source of the cholera strain.[23]

UN peacekeepers from Nepal brought the strain of cholera to Haiti responsible for an epidemic that has killed 5,500 people, according to a study published by the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The study is the first to establish a direct link between the arrival of the Nepalese UN battalion near the small town of Mirebalais and the cholera epidemic that erupted in mid-October 2010.[citation needed] The UN continued to be blamed for causing the outbreak by NGOs.[24]

Domestic reactions

Protesters have demanded that the Nepali brigade of the UN leave the country.[25] There were fears that following the discovery of 15 cases in the capital, the epidemic could spread further.[26] The Pan-American Health Organisation predicted that 270,000 people would be infected within a year of the outbreak.[27]

On 15 November, a riot broke out in Cap-Haïtien following rumours that the outbreak was caused by U.N. soldiers from Nepal.[28] At least 5 people were killed in the riots, including 1 UN personnel.[29] Riots then continued for a second day.[30] Following the riots the UN said the outbreak was being staged for "political reasons because of forthcoming elections", as the Haitian government sent its own forces to "protest" the UN peacekeepers.[31] During a third day of riots UN personnel were blamed for shooting at least 5 protestors but denied responsibility.[32] On the fourth day of demonstrations against the UN presence, police fired tear gas into an IDP camp in the capital.[33]

Riots following the election were a cause for concern in the ability to contain the epidemic.[34]

Spread

By the end of October cholera had been confirmed in four of Haiti's ten departments: Artibonite, Centre, Nord and Ouest, including the capital Port-au-Prince,[5][35] and the capital's Cité Soleil slum district,[36] By 16 November it had spread throughout the country.[29] In addition to those hospitalised, other people have been unable to receive treatment due to overcrowded hospitals.[37] Health workers also feared the disease would spread after Hurricane Tomas hit the island causing more flooding.[38]

There are fears that the disease could further spread, since many people still live in unsanitary camps as a result of the earthquake earlier in the year,[39] after outbreak was reported in the camps.[40] These concerns came despite claims that the outbreak had been contained in the north and central parts of the country.[10] The first outbreak of cholera was reported in the Dominican Republic in mid-November 2010,[41] following the Pan-America Health Organisation's prediction.[27] By January 2011, the Dominican Republic had reported 244 cases of cholera.[42] The first man to die of it there died in the province of Altagracia on 23 January 2011.[42] In the United States, a woman returning from Haiti to Florida was hospitalised for five days as a result of contracting cholera. She is expected to recover fully. The Florida Department of Health also investigated several other suspected cases of the disease.[43]

On 15 November, Laura Dills, director of programming for Catholic Relief Services in Haiti, said, "Some people have been reporting that we've gotten in front of it and are in control of the spread of cholera. Actually WHO does not believe that. There's such a severe underreporting of cases that they're not sure of all of the hot spots."[44]

The Haitian government estimated that there would be at least 400,000 cholera cases in the first 12 months of the epidemic—with half of those cases occurring by mid-January 2011.[7]

In late January 2011, more than 20 Venezuelans were reported to have been taken to hospital after contracting cholera after visiting the Dominican Republic.[45][46] 37 cases were reported in total.[42] Contaminated food was blamed for the spread of the disease.[47] Venezuelan health minister Eugenia Sader gave a news conference which was broadcast on VTV during which she described all 37 people as "doing well".[42] The minister had previously observed that the last time cholera was recorded in Venezuela was twenty years before this, in 1991.[42]

On 15 March 2011, a report was issued by the University of California that predicted total infections would number up to 779,000 and total deaths up to 11,000 by November 2011, compared with earlier UN estimates that around 400,000 people would end up infected.[6] The revised numbers were based on more factors than the UN's estimates, which assumed a total infection rate of between two and four percent of the population.[6] In a statement released at the same time, the WHO said total deaths thus far had reached 4,672, with 252,640 cases reported.[6]

Controversy

A clinic located next to a school ignited protests as locals felt the schoolchildren could be vulnerable to the spread of the disease.[48]

The spread was partially blamed on the poor distribution of health supplies due to logistical problems.[7] A global medical aid agency, the Pan American Health Organization, said there was also a lack of access to untainted drinking water.[7]

Casualties

Some aid agencies have reported that the toll may be higher than the official figures because the government does not track deaths in rural areas where people never reached a hospital or emergency treatment center.[44] In 2011, reports suggested over 6,700 people had been killed during the outbreak.[49]

Political reactions

On 28 October, the head of Haiti's health department, Gabriel Thimoté, said 4,147 people were being treated. WHO's cholera chief, Claire-Lise Chaignat, said the epidemic was not contained and that she thought it had not yet "reached the peak", so Haitian authorities should be prepared for a "worst case scenario" of cholera spreading in the capital, Port-au-Prince.[50]

On 10 November, Gabriel Thimote, Haiti's senior health official, said that the outbreak was "no longer a simple emergency, it's now a matter of national security."[27]

The outbreak of cholera became an issue for candidates to answer in the 2010 general election.[51] There were fears that the election could be postponed. The head of MINUSTAH Edmond Mulet said that it should not be delayed as that could lead to a political vacuum with untold potential problems.[52]

On 12 November, the United Nations issued an appeal for around $160 million to fight the spread of the disease, saying that "all our efforts can be outrun by the epidemic" and warned of a lack of space for patients in hospitals.[53] It also denied that the Nepali contingent were responsible for the outbreak.[29] In November 2011, the UN was received a petition from 5,000 victims for hundreds of millions of dollars in reperations over the outbreak though to have been caused by UN members of MUNISTAH.[49]

See also

Portal icon Disasters portal
Portal icon Caribbean portal
Portal icon Haiti portal
Portal icon Health and fitness portal
Portal icon Medicine portal
Portal icon United Nations portal


References

  1. ^ a b Zhang Xiang (June 24, 2011). "Haiti cholera cases on rise: WHO". Xinhua. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/health/2011-06/24/c_13948776.htm. Retrieved June 26, 2011. 
  2. ^ http://www.mspp.gouv.ht/site/downloads/Rapport%20journalier%20MSPP%20du%2028%20janvier%202011.pdf
  3. ^ Kushner, Jacob (23 October 2010). "Haiti's cholera outbreak spreads, adding to worries it would reach refugee camps in capital". Star Tribune. Associated Press. http://www.startribune.com/world/105514053.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  4. ^ PAHO's Interactive Report of Cholera Outbreak
  5. ^ a b c "Cholera cases found in Haiti capital". MSNBC. 23 October 2010. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39787756/ns/health-infectious_diseases/. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  6. ^ a b c d "Haiti cholera 'far worse than expected', experts fear". BBC News Online. 15 March 2011. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5xEvvaKZx. Retrieved 17 March 2011. 
  7. ^ a b c d Basu, Moni (2010-12-31). "Cholera death toll in Haiti rises to more than 3,000". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/12/31/haiti.cholera/index.html?hpt=T2. Retrieved 2010-12-31. 
  8. ^ [1]
  9. ^ "Health: Cholera". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/physical_health/conditions/cholera.shtml. Retrieved 2010-11-17. 
  10. ^ a b "Cholera crisis deepens in Haiti - Americas". Al Jazeera English. 2010-11-11. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/2010111116141596571.html. Retrieved 2010-11-17. 
  11. ^ "2010 Haiti Cholera Outbreak". United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 21 October 2010. http://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/. Retrieved 12 November 2010. 
  12. ^ "Haiti: Cholera slows but fears of spread remain". BBC News. 25 October 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11622523. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  13. ^ a b c MyHealthNewsDaily Staff (1 November 2010). "Haiti's cholera strain likely came from South Asia, CDC says". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39954240/ns/health-infectious_diseases. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  14. ^ "UN investigates Haiti outbreak". Al Jazeera English. 28 October 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/10/2010102841412141967.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  15. ^ "Haiti cholera 'resembles South Asian strain'". BBC News. 1 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11669079. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  16. ^ "CDC Announces Laboratory Test Results of Cholera Outbreak Strain in Haiti". Infection Control Today. http://www.infectioncontroltoday.com/news/2010/11/cdc-announces-laboratory-test-results-of-cholera-outbreak-strain-in-haiti.aspx. Retrieved 17 November 2010. 
  17. ^ Katz, Jonathan M.; Associated Press (3 November 2010). "Experts ask: Did U.N. troops infect Haiti?". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39996103/ns/health-infectious_diseases. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  18. ^ "Haiti's cholera 'from South Asia'". Al Jazeera English. 2 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/201011245450543862.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  19. ^ "Svenska ambassadören: "Smittan kommer från Nepal" (Swedish)". Svenska Dagbladet. 16 November 2010. http://www.svd.se/nyheter/utrikes/svenska-ambassadoren-smittan-kommer-fran-nepal_5680337.svd. Retrieved 16 November 2010. 
  20. ^ "Nepal's UN Mission Denies Blame For Haiti Outbreak". http://www.feedsyndicate.com/articles/7020584380. 
  21. ^ a b "Haiti's cholera epidemic caused by weather, say scientists". The Guardian. 22 November 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/nov/22/haiti-cholera-un-weather. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  22. ^ "Haiti cholera: UN peacekeepers to blame, report says". BBC News Online. 7 December 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11943902. Retrieved 8 December 2010. 
  23. ^ "UN to probe Haiti cholera outbreak". Al Jazeera English. 17 December 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/12/20101217193150891446.html. Retrieved 2010-12-20. 
  24. ^ http://www.news24.com/World/News/UN-caused-Haiti-cholera-outbreak-group-20111108
  25. ^ "UN troops blamed for Haiti cholera". Al Jazeera English. 30 October 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/10/20101029213344370246.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  26. ^ "Cholera spreads to Haitian capital". Al Jazeera English. 9 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/2010118225019323724.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  27. ^ a b c "Cholera death toll in Haiti passes 600". BBC News. 10 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11729765. Retrieved 10 November 2010. 
  28. ^ "Cholera protesters barricade Haiti city, assail UN". Associated Press. 15 November 2010. http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jb2N0o1LXG7khyRESl0kOLjRQNkw?docId=e118a2d12fb84643934b548ea58c8425. Retrieved 16 November 2010. 
  29. ^ a b c "Haiti cholera protest turns violent - Americas". Al Jazeera English. 2010-09-29. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/20101115165524154228.html. Retrieved 2010-11-17. 
  30. ^ "UN faces heat over Haiti cholera". Al Jazeera. 17 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/2010111612593225494.html. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  31. ^ "Haiti riots against UN heat up". Al Jazeera. 17 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/video/americas/2010/11/20101117123020447605.html. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  32. ^ "UN blamed for Haiti shootings". Al Jazeera. 17 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/20101117194643939197.html. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  33. ^ "Cholera unrest hits Haiti capital". Al Jazeera. 19 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/20101118173955660861.html. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  34. ^ "Haiti vote chaos continues". Al Jazeera. 2010-11-29. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/201011295115818229.html. Retrieved 2010-12-20. 
  35. ^ "Haiti cholera cases detected in Port-au-Prince". BBC News. 24 October 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11614639. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  36. ^ "Cholera suspected in Haiti town". Al Jazeera English. 29 October 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/10/2010102912124470696.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  37. ^ Botelho, Greg; Azadeh Ansari and Alanne Orjoux (22 October 2010). "Officials: Toll in Haiti's cholera outbreak now above 150". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/10/21/haiti.cholera/. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  38. ^ "Haiti fears spread of cholera". Al Jazeera English. 8 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/2010117113247951990.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  39. ^ "Cholera outbreak kills 194 in Haiti". Associated Press. CBC News. 22 October 2010. http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2010/10/22/haiti-cholera-outbreak.html. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  40. ^ "Cholera reaches Haiti quake camps - Americas". Al Jazeera English. 2010-11-11. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/2010111023475117420.html. Retrieved 2010-11-17. 
  41. ^ "Haiti cholera reaches Dominican Republic". BBC News Online. 16 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11771109. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  42. ^ a b c d e "Venezuela reports 37 cholera cases". Turner Broadcasting System. 27 January 2011. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/01/27/venezuela.cholera/. Retrieved 27 January 2011. 
  43. ^ "Case of Cholera in Florida Is Linked to Haiti Outbreak". The New York Times. 17 November 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/us/18florida.html. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  44. ^ a b "Haiti cholera toll rises as medical supplies are rushed to victims". USCatholic.org. http://www.uscatholic.org/news/2010/11/haiti-cholera-toll-rises-medical-supplies-are-rushed-victims. Retrieved 2010-11-17. 
  45. ^ "Cholera alert reaches Venezuela via Dominican Republic". BBC News Online. 26 January 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12292666. Retrieved 29 January 2011. 
  46. ^ "Cholera Arrives in Venezuela". Latin American Herald Tribune. http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=385459&CategoryId=10718. 
  47. ^ Minaya, Ezequiel (27 January 2011). "Venezuela's Confirmed Cholera Cases Increases To Nearly 40". The Wall Street Journal (News Corporation). http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20110127-715280.html. Retrieved 27 January 2011. 
  48. ^ "Cholera clinic sparks Haiti protest". Al Jazeera. 27 October 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/10/2010102754553564434.html. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  49. ^ a b http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2011/11/201111822258119795.html
  50. ^ Agence France-Presse (28 October 2010). "Cholera "Yet to Peak" in Haiti". Al-Manar. http://www.almanar.com.lb/newssite/NewsDetails.aspx?id=159933&language=en. Retrieved 9 November 2010. 
  51. ^ "Haiti: Seismic Election". Al Jazeera. 18 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/programmes/peopleandpower/2010/11/20101117839903761.html. 
  52. ^ "Unrest 'must not stop Haiti polls'". Al Jazeera. 20 November 2010. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2010/11/2010112005720398357.html. Retrieved 22 November 2010. 
  53. ^ "Haiti cholera toll tops 900 with six provinces affected". Reuters. 14 November 2010. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6AA5PC20101114. Retrieved 14 November 2010. 

External links

Coordinates: 19°06′N 72°20′W / 19.1°N 72.333°W / 19.1; -72.333


Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Нужна курсовая?

Look at other dictionaries:

  • Haiti — Republic of Haiti République d Haïti (French) Repiblik Ayiti …   Wikipedia

  • Cholera — Classification and external resources Scanning electron microscope image of Vibrio cholerae ICD 10 A …   Wikipedia

  • Cholera outbreaks and pandemics — Hand bill from the New York City Board of Health, 1832. The outdated public health advice demonstrates the lack of understanding of the disease and its actual causative factors. It is estimated that cholera affects 3 5 million people… …   Wikipedia

  • 2010 Haiti earthquake — 2010 Haiti earthquake …   Wikipedia

  • November 2010 — was the eleventh month of that year. It began on a Monday and ended after 30 days on a Tuesday. Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia s Current events Portal from November 2010 …   Wikipedia

  • Choleraepidemie in Haiti ab 2010 — Ende Oktober 2010 kam es zu einer immer noch andauernden Cholera Epidemie in Haiti. Die Regierung Haitis rief nach dem Auftreten erster Todesfälle von Cholera Erkrankten landesweit den sanitären Notstand aus.[1] Départements in Haiti – siehe… …   Deutsch Wikipedia

  • December 2010 — was the twelfth month of that year. It began on a Wednesday and ended after 31 days on a Friday. Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia s Current events Portal from December 2010 …   Wikipedia

  • May 2011 — was the fifth month of the current year. It began on a Sunday and ended after 31 days on a Tuesday. International holidays (See Holidays and observances, on sidebar at right, below) Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia s …   Wikipedia

  • March 2011 — was the third month of the current year. It began on a Tuesday and ended after 31 days on a Thursday. International holidays (See Holidays and observances, on sidebar at right, below) Portal:Current events This is an archived version of Wikipedia …   Wikipedia

  • Ноябрь 2010 года — ← Октябрь 2010 года Декабрь 2010 года → 30 ноября Уволен главный тренер московского «Локомотива» Юрий Сёмин.[1] Президент Украины Виктор Янукович ветировал Налоговый кодекс страны.[2] В дагестанской деревне Цибари сгорело около 50 домов.[3] На… …   Википедия

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”