Origins of Australian rules football

See also: Marn Grook and List of Australian rules football clubs by date of establishment

A statue next to the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the approximate site of the 1858 "foot-ball" match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. Tom Wills is depicted umpiring behind two young players contesting the ball. The plaque reads: "Wills did more than any other person — as footballer and umpire, co-writer of the rules and promoter of the game — to develop Australian Football during its first decade."

The origins of Australian rules football ("Aussie Rules") are obscure and still the subject of much debate.

The earliest accounts of "foot-ball" games in Australia date back to July 1829 ^[1] and the earliest accounts of clubs formed to play football date to the late 1850s. Football in the early years was played by a variety of rules (and sometimes few rules at all). Though football became increasingly common between 1856 and 1858, written details are difficult to find as most of these matches were poorly documented.

Most modern historians generally recognise that football first became organised in Melbourne in 1858 with a series of experimental rules in a bid to keep cricketers fit during the winter months. It was not until 1859 that the first known laws of the game were published by the Melbourne Football Club.^[2]

Thomas Wentworth Wills is acknowledged by many to be the game's inventor.^[3]

Although there are many theories to the pre-1859 origins of the game, the predominant ones being that it:

a) originated from early Irish games such as caid (an ancestor of Gaelic football) brought to Australia by migrants;

b) originated from English public school football games, particularly early forms of rugby football;

c) was partly inspired by traditional indigenous Australian pastimes, such as the ball game marn grook;

d) was a mixture of some or all of the above and that it shared multiple influences as a consequence of diverse historical circumstances.

Australian rules football was one of many dozens of sports whose modern rules were formulated during the mid- or late- 19th century. World-wide, this certainly includes many different football codes. The major impetus for this was the patenting of the world's first lawnmower in 1830. This allowed for the preparation of modern ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc.^[4]

There are also theories on where the game originated in Australia and these places include Melbourne, early Victorian bayside towns (now part of Greater Melbourne), the Geelong region, the Goldfields region of Victoria, Tasmania and even Adelaide.

The AFL Commission, the game's current governing body, officially acknowledges the following with regards to the formation of Australian Football:

a) that 1858 was the commencement date

b) that the game was invented in Melbourne

In its official account of the game's history for its 150th celebrations, however, the AFL dismissed Wills as an inventor of the game and does not recognise any connection to traditional indigenous games. This stance was not without controversy. (Refer "The Founder of the Game" [below].)

However there are some discrepancies in the AFL's account of the game's birth. Firstly the official rules still used today were not in place until 1859. Secondly many claim that the origins can be traced back further.

This article explores developments and theories in the historical accounts of the early origins of the game in depth.

Pre-1858 accounts of "football"

The following are the earliest published accounts of "football" in Australia, many of which in the past have been used to claim the earlier origins of Australian rules football. Most of these prior to 1859 were vague, largely disorganised and with little reference to the actual rules being played.

• 1841 – Robert Brough Smyth observes indigenous Australian men playing a game of "foot ball" (most likely marngrook)
• 1843 – Irish settlers celebrating Saint Patrick's Day in South Australia played a "foot ball" match (Referred to as "Australian Rules" by the SANFL, possibly a variation of Caid)
• 1844 – "footballing" noted at Batman's Hill in Melbourne^[5] However hurling was played also, making it likely that this match was also caid.^[6]
• 1845 – "football" kicking recorded at the temperance picnic on Emerald Hill Melbourne^[5]
• 1850 – a "football match" was played as part of the week of Separation celebrations in Emerald Hill Melbourne,^[7] wherein a publican promoted "foot ball" between two teams of eleven players, and then afterwards a twelve-a-side match
• 1850 - a six-a-side "football match" was played in Geelong in November for a wager.^[8][9][10]
• 1851 – "football" noted in a public demonstration in Hobart February^[11]
• 1853 – "football" in Richmond, Tasmania advertised in The Courier on 18 July^[12]
• 1854 – "football" in Richmond, Tasmania advertised in the Courier on 25 October^[13]
• 1855 – "foot-ball" matches played on 1 September at the Jerusalem Inn outside of Hobart.^[13]
• 1857 – William Blandowski sketches indigenous Australians playing "foot ball" in Merbein (most likely marngrook)
• 1857 – "foot-ball" match played at the Jerusalem Inn outside of Hobart in November.^[14]

Sean Fagan claims that early matches played in Tasmania may have been an early form of rugby football, pointing to early mentions of goal posts with cross-bars and off-side rules of later Tasmanian clubs.^[15]

1858 – Earliest documented clubs and matches

Football became increasingly organised and ingrained in the colony of Victoria in 1858, particularly in the capital Melbourne and surrounds.

The first written mentions of a football club in St Kilda appears in April 1858, however historians recognise it to be an informal version of the game.^[16]

On 15 June 1858 the earliest known record of Victorian football match was played with modified rules between St Kilda Grammar School (now defunct) and Melbourne Grammar School on the St Kilda foreshore.^[17][18]

There are also reports from 1858 of "football" clubs in Albert Park and Richmond.^{[citation needed]}

Media reports cited by various sources claimed that a man named George Bruce is alleged to have played for a team known as Richmond Cricketers and also for the Colony of Victoria and, in 1858, was allegedly voted by newspaper writers as the Champion Player of the Colony. The claim has dubious historical merit. The story is of him playing wearing an iron hook in place of a missing hand.^{[citation needed]}

The first recorded club in South Australia was the Adelaide Football Club, in 1860 (This club has no link to the current Adelaide "Crows" Football Club in the AFL)

Although reports from the media of the time indicate that senior football was played and that some early clubs may have been formed no records from the clubs themselves are known to exist. It is typically assumed that they played by their own rules.

Tom Wills' letter

Tom Wills

A little over a year after his return from England and the Rugby school where he played rugby football, Tom Wills promoted the idea of organised football in the colony of Victoria, most notably when he wrote the following letter, published in Bell's Life in Victoria on 10 July 1858:

Dear Sir, Now that cricket has been put aside for some few months to come, and cricketers have assumed somewhat of the chrysalis nature (for the time being only, it is true), but at length again will burst forth in all their varied hues, rather than allow this state of torpor to creep over them and stifle their now supple limbs, why cannot they, I say, form a football club, and form a committee of three or more to draw up a code of laws? If a club of this sort was got up, it would be of vast benefit to any cricket ground to be trampled upon, and would make the turf firm and durable, besides which it would help those who are inclined to become stout and having their joints encased in useless super-abundant flesh. If it were not possible to form a football club, why should these young men who have adopted this new country as their motherland – why, I say, do not they form themselves into a rifle club, so at any date they may be some day called upon to aid their adopted land against a tyrant who may some time pop upon us when we least expect a foe at our own very doors. Surely our young cricketers are not afraid of a crack of a rifle when they face so courageously the leather sphere, and it would disgrace no one to learn in time to defend his country and hearth. A firm heart and a steady hand and a quick eye are all that are requisite, and with practice all these may be attained. Trusting that someone will take up this matter and form either of the above clubs, or at any rate some athletic games, I remain, Yours truly, T.W. WILLS.^[19]

Experimental matches

A month after his letter appeared, Wills acted as co-referee of a game between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College, played in the parkland surrounding the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Played over three afternoons by teams comprising forty players with the goal-posts approximately 500 metres apart, only one goal was scored (by Scotch). The rules required the winner to score twice, so the match was deemed a draw.^[20] It appears that there were major differences between Australian rules football as it was to evolve and this early school game, but the match is important as some claim it led to Tom Wills calling a meeting in 1859 at the Parade Hotel (on the site of the present M.C.G. Hotel) at which rudimentary rules for Victorian rules football (later known as Australian rules Football) were drawn up.^{[citation needed]}

In late July, Wills was organising practice matches at Yarra Park with Parade Hotel proprietor Jerry Bryant.

On 31 July, the earliest recorded senior match at Yarra Park was between a "St Kilda scratch team" and "Melbourne scratch team". Trees were used for goal posts and there were no boundaries and the match lasted from 1pm until dark. There were no rules and fights broke out. The media noted that each nationality (English, Irish and Scottish) played the match their own distinctive way.^[16]

Wills called a meeting for 1 August 1858 and this date is regarded by some as the formation date of the Melbourne Football Club (although records of the earliest records of the club's incorporation are in 1859).

On 7 August 1858 a famous match between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College began at Richmond Park, which was umpired by Wills and McAdam and also involved Scotch headmaster Thomas H. Smith.^[21] A second day of play took place on 21 August and a third, and final, day on 4 September.^[22] While the full rules that were used is unknown, the match was played with a round ball, the distance between the goals was approximately half a mile (approximately 4 times longer than the modern MCG playing surface), there were 40 players per side and one goal each side was scored with the game being declared a draw. The two schools have competed annually ever since for the Cordner-Eggleston Cup.^[23]

In Tasmania, "foot-ball" had been played for a decade and early clubs had already formed. A match in Hobart on 23 October 1858 at Queens Domain was notable for attracting a "large crowd".^[24]

Some regard these early matches as the first matches of Australian rules football, however to many it is clear that the game was still in the process of evolving.

1859: first rules

The Melbourne Football Club rules of 1859 are the oldest surviving set of laws for Australian rules football. The eleven simple rules were drawn up on 17 May in a meeting was chaired by Wills and in attendance were journalists W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson.^[22] Accounts of the people directly involved differ. Some sources also claim that Thomas H. Smith^[25] and H. C. A. Harrison^[26] were also present. The meeting was held at the Parade Hotel, East Melbourne hosted by owner and Melbourne Cricket Club member James (Jerry) Bryant. The publican was a friend of Tom Wills with a personal interest in introducing football to Melbourne's schools. Bryant had played a role in organising early football matches at the nearby Richmond Park and his son was one of the first players.^[27] The rules were signed by Tom Wills, William Hammersley, J. Sewell, J. B. Thompson, Alex Bruce, T. Butterworth and Thomas H. Smith. Importantly, the rules were widely publicised and distributed.

A hand-written copy of these first rules still exists.^[28]

Various theories

Goldfields theories

Writing in Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Australian Rules Football ... in 1981, author Graeme Atkinson includes a chapter entitled "The Good Old Days". In it he makes the anecdotal claim that matches with similar rules to those later adopted were being played as early as 1853 during the Victorian gold rush on the Ballarat and Sandhurst (now Bendigo) goldfields, but also highlights the lack of supporting evidence.

The goldfields theory is one of the key planks for the theories of Irish origins.

English School Football

It is often speculated that the primary origins of Australian Football is English public school football games and university football codes.

Geoffrey Blainey, Leonie Sandercock, Ian Turner and Sean Fagan have all written in support for the theory that the primary influence was rugby football and other other games emanating from English public schools.^[29]

Gillian Hibbins in her official account for the AFL also supports this theory.

Their arguments follow the premise that:

a) all members of the Melbourne Football Club committee had experience of English games

b) Tom Wills, himself an exceptional rugby football player, originally wanted to introduce Rugby School rules

c) English school rules were debated extensively by the committee. The club is documented to have looked at the Rugby School Rules but also those of Eton (Eton field game), Winchester (Winchester College football) and Harrow (Harrow football)

d) there are pronounced similarities to the Sheffield rules (which were being formed at a similar time). The most noticeable similarity was the absence of an offside rule and the prevalence of the fair catch (or mark). One theory claims that may have been due to the influence of Henry Creswick (possibly a relative of Nathaniel Creswick) who was born in Sheffield but emigrated to Australia with his brother in 1840 (the town of Creswick is named after them). He moved to Melbourne in 1854 and became involved in the local cricket scene. He played first class cricket for Victoria during the 57/58 season alongside 3 of the founders of Melbourne Football Club including Tom Wills.^[30] The reports of the popularity of the Australian game on the goldfields in the 1850s came from the Creswick area^{[citation needed]}. However such a link has not been proven and likely to be circumstantial.

However against this theory is that:

a) the fact that other than Tom Wills, the members felt Rugby School’s rough play and offside rules would not suit players older than schoolboys or the drier Australian conditions.^[31]

b) Wills made the now famous declaration "No, we shall have a game of our own".^[32]

c) No games of rugby football had previously been recorded in Victoria

Indigenous link theories

Australian Aboriginal domestic scene depicting traditional recreation, including a football game which may be Marn Grook. (From William Blandowski's Australien in 142 Photographischen Abbildungen, 1857, (Haddon Library, Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge)

Tom Wills monument in Moyston makes a strong claim to the Marngrook connection.

Some historians, including Martin Flanagan,^[33] Jim Poulter and Col Hutchison postulate that Tom Wills could have been inspired by Marngrook.^[34]

Wills was raised in Victoria's western districts. As the only white child in the district, it is said that he was fluent in the local dialect and frequently played with local Aboriginal children on his father's property, Lexington, in outside of the town of Moyston.^[35] This story has been passed down through the generations of his family.^[36] The tribe was one that is believed to have played marngrook. However the relationship of the Wills family with local Djabwurrung people is well documented.

Col Hutchison, former historian for the AFL wrote in support of the theory postulated by Flanagan, and his account appears on an official AFL memorial to Tom Wills in Moyston erected in 1998.

Gillian Hibbins in the AFL's official account of the game's history published in 2008 for the game's 150th celebrations sternly rejects the theory:

Understandably, the appealing idea that Australian Football is a truly Australian native game recognising the indigenous people, rather than deriving solely from a colonial dependence upon the British background, has been uncritically embraced and accepted. Sadly, this emotional belief lacks any intellectual credibility.

Hibbin's account was widely publicised^[37] and caused significant controversy and deeply offended prominent indigenous Australians who openly criticised the publication.^[38]

Irish football theories

The question of whether Australian rules football and Gaelic football have shared origins arises because it is clear even to casual observers that the two games are similar.

Both Irish and Irish Australian historians, including Patrick O'Farrell, Marcus De Búrca, Chris McConville, B. W. O'Dwyer and Richard Davis have supported the theory that Australian rules football and Gaelic Football have some common origins.

Other Australian historians, including Geoffrey Blainey, Leonie Sandercock and Ian Turner have specifically rejected any such connection,.^[29]

In 1843, Irish settlers celebrating Saint Patrick's Day in South Australia played some kind of football.^[39] Football, cricket and shinty were also commonly played in the early settlements of Hobart and Richmond in southern Tasmania during the 1840s and 1850s as well as part of St Patricks Day celebrations. In South Melbourne, football was also played on St Patricks Day. Since none of the modern football games had been codified at the time, these matches were a traditional gaelic form of football such as caid. Patrick O'Farrell has pointed out that another Irish sport with ancient origins, hurling — which has similar rules to Gaelic football — was played in Australia as early as the 1840s, and may also have been an influence on the Australian game.^[40]

Thomas H. Smith was an Irish migrant who claimed that he was involved in the writing of the original Melbourne Football Club rules and co-ordinating early school matches, however there is no evidence that he had ever been linked to traditional Irish football or that it had an influence on the Australian game.

B. W. O'Dwyer suggested that there is circumstantial evidence that traditional Irish games influenced the founders of Australian rules, when the game was codified by Tom Wills and others at Melbourne, in the Colony of Victoria in 1858–59.^[41] O'Dwyer argued that both Gaelic football and Australian rules are distinct from other codes in elements such as the lack of limitations on the direction of ball movement — the absence of an offside rule. According to O'Dwyer:

These are all elements of Irish football. There were several variations of Irish football in existence, normally without the benefit of rulebooks, but the central tradition in Ireland was in the direction of the relatively new game [i.e. rugby]...adapted and shaped within the perimeters of the ancient Irish game of hurling... [These rules] later became embedded in Gaelic football. Their presence in Victorian football may be accounted for in terms of a formative influence being exerted by men familiar with and no doubt playing the Irish game. It is not that they were introduced into the game from that motive [i.e. emulating Irish games]; it was rather a case of particular needs being met...^[41]

See also: Relationship between Gaelic football and Australian rules football

Geelong's game?

Mr C. Mullen wrote about early Geelong clubs Barwon, Bellarine, Corio Bay, Flinders, Kardinia and Moorabool in an unlocated publication Footballer's Australian Almanac published in 1951. Mullen claimed that these clubs were formed in 1856. While Mullen's work has been cited by several authors since, on the subject of the Geelong clubs there is no supporting evidence.

Citing Mullen, Atkinson's 1981 publication Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Australian Rules Football ... attributes the formation of the Geelong clubs to Tom Wills and claims that they should be recognised as the foundation clubs.

Atkinson considers it likely that Geelong's rules were drawn up prior to the first rules of the Melbourne Football Club which were drafted on 17 May 1859.^[42]

In support of his theory are his "records" of the first recorded champion of formalised football in Victoria was Corio Bay (later Geelong) in 1856 and he also claims that an interclub match occurred between Melbourne Cricketers and Geelong in 1858 under compromise rules.^[42]

The rules allegedly used used by the Geelong Football Club in 1859 were originally written down by hand,^[42] however there is no record of them from earlier than 1866 when they were incorporated by way of compromise into the official Victorian Rules by H C A Harrison and committee:

1. Distance between goals and the goal posts to be decided by captains.
2. Teams of 25 in grand matches, but up to 30 against odds.
3. Matches to be played in 2 halves of 50 minutes. At the end of first 50 teams may leave ground for 20 minutes for refreshments but must be ready to resume on time otherwise rival captain can call game off or (if his side has scored) claim it as a win.
4. Game played with 200 yard [sic.] [182.9 metre] space, same to be measured equally on each side of a line drawn through the centre of the two goals, and two posts to be called "kick off" posts shall be erected at a distance of 20 yards [1.83 metres] on each side of the goal posts at both ends and in a straight line between them.
5. When kicked behind goal, ball may be brought 20 yards in front of any portion of the space between the kick off and kicked as nearly as possibly [sic.] in line with opposite goal.
6. Ball must be bounced every 10 or 20 yards if carried.
7. Tripping, holding, hacking prohibited. Pushing with hands or body is allowed when any player is in rapid motion or in possession of ball, except in the case of a mark.
8. Mark is when a player catches the ball before it hits the ground and has been clearly kicked by another player.
9. Handball only allowed if ball held clearly in one hand and punched or hit out with other. If caught, no mark. Throwing prohibited.
10. Before game captains toss for ends.
11. In case of infringements, captain may claim free from where breach occurred. Except where umpires appointed, opposing captain to adjudicate.
12. In all grand matches two umpires – one from each side – will take up position as near as possible between the goal posts and centre. When breach is made appeal to go to nearest umpire.

Significant Developments and discoveries

The history of Australian rules football is constantly evolving and rewritten with new clues to the origins of the game are continually unfolding.

For example prior to recent times H C A Harrison was mistakenly believed to be the "father of the game". More recently, his contributions – if any – to the game prior to the 1860s has been largely downplayed.

Some significant discoveries which have influenced the historical record of the origins of Australian football include:

• 1876 – Thomas H. Smith writes to The Australasian on 26 February asserting that he was involved in the drafting of the Melbourne Football Club rules in 1859.
• 1878 – Smyth publishes an account of his 1841 observations of indigenous football
• 1889 – Alfred Howitt wrote an account of indigenous Australians playing a "football" game (most likely marngrook)
• 1980 – A copy of the original Melbourne Football Club rules [1859] was discovered. Before this time, the 1866 Victorian Rules were believed to be the oldest.
• 2000 – records of a match in St Kilda played in June, 1858 were discovered, along with records of a senior club also from St Kilda. Subsequent details have since been uncovered by local historical societies. The most interesting aspect of these discoveries is that the match pre-dates Wills letter.
• 2007 – the records for the formation of the Castlemaine Football Club in 1859 was found, placing its formation between Melbourne FC and Geelong FC. The discovery lends credence to the theory that football was already widespread and established throughout regional Victoria during the Victorian gold rush before being organised and taking off in suburban Melbourne. However there is no evidence of the game being played in Castlemaine or the goldfields prior to 1859.
• 2008 – a lithograph of early indigenous Australian games was found in England. The 150 year old image showed clear similarities lending some credence to the theory of the game's indigenous origins.
• 2008 – The AFL releases an official history which states that the game began in 1858 as a variation of rugby football. the histories of the Melbourne FC and Melbourne University FC are released, including new evidence of both club's formative years. Melbourne FC claims 1858 as its formation and University claimed June 1859.

The Founder of the Game

In the 21st Century the pivotal role played by Tom Wills in the establishment of the game is virtually unchallenged. However, in the latter part of the 19th Century and much of the 20th, H.C.A. Harrison was accepted as "the father of Australian rules football". He was to become a vice-president of the Victorian Football Association and later the inaugural chairman of the Victorian Football League and was actively associated with the Melbourne Football Club until the late 1920s.^[43]

The reason for the lack of prominence given to the part played in the early days by Tom Wills is often cited as Harrison's long life and his prominence, well into the 20th Century.

Respected journalist Martin Flanagan postulates that the game's administrators engaged in historical revisionism of the story of Tom Wills involvement in the origins of football because he was a drunkard and because he committed suicide.^[44]

History records Wills' role in the establishment of the game and is now generally accepted.

However the MFC continues to recognise Harrison as its preferred "father figure". This position may be accounted to an early falling out between Wills and the club.

Further reading

• History of Australian rules football in Victoria (1859-1900)
• Australian Rules Football
• Marn Grook
• Caid

Footnotes

1. ^ The Sydney Monitor 25 July 1829
2. ^ History Official Website of the Australian Football League
3. ^ AFL's unsung hero, Tom Wills, honoured in book
4. ^ ABC Radio National Ockham's Razor, first broadcast 6 June 2010.
5. ^ ^{a b} A National Game: The History of Australian Rules Football Author: de Moore Gregory Hess Rob Nicholson Matthew Stewart Bob
6. ^ Seamus J. King, "The Clash of the Ash on Foreign Fields", page 139.
7. ^ http://ndpbeta.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/692373
8. ^ Blainey. Game of Our Own. p.12
9. ^ Geelong Advertiser, November 21, 1850
10. ^ We are Geelong - The Story of the Geelong Football Club. pg 25
11. ^ http://ndpbeta.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2961354
12. ^ http://ndpbeta.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2247929
13. ^ ^{a b} http://ndpbeta.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2245386
14. ^ http://ndpbeta.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/3245628
15. ^ http://www.colonialrugby.com.au/tasmania.htm
16. ^ ^{a b} http://www.skhs.org.au/~SKHSnewsletter1/newsletters/Insert%20%20Footy%20150,%20Aug-Sept%202008.pdf
17. ^ St Kilda Historical Society Aug–Sep 2008.
18. ^ The Melbourne Book – A History of Now. Published 2003. Hardie Grant Books. South Yarra. ISBN 1 74066 049 8. pg. 182
19. ^ Blainey (1990), p 17–18.
20. ^ Mancini & Hibbins (1987), p 21.
21. ^ pg 36. Melbourne FC Since 1858 – An Illustrated History
22. ^ ^{a b} Ken Piesse (1995). The Complete Guide to Australian Football. Pan Macmillan Australia. ISBN 0-330-35712-3.  p303.
23. ^ Scotch College – Cordner-Eggleston Cup
24. ^ http://ndpbeta.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2464777
25. ^ Thomas Smith himself made this claim in response to an article about the history of Melbourne FC in The Australasian published 26 February 1876 (from Melbourne FC Since 1858 – An Illustrated History pg 36). Smith's personal account mentions Thompson arriving after the decision to form the club
26. ^ Harrison's involvement in the early stages is believed by many to be due to him being perceived as the "father of the game" in later decades and subsequent erroneous reporting
27. ^ pg 20–10. Melbourne FC Since 1858 – An Illustrated History. Goeff Slattery Publishing
28. ^ John Murray, ed (2008). Melbourne F.C. : since 1858 ; an illustrated history. Geoff Slattery Publishing. ISBN 9780980442007. http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4269123. 
29. ^ ^{a b} See, for example: Richard Davis, 1991, "Irish and Australian Nationalism: the Sporting Connection: Football & Cricket", Centre for Tasmanian Historical Studies Bulletin, v.3, no.2, pp. 49–50 and; B. W. O'Dwyer, 1989, "The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football", Victorian Historical Journal, v.60, no.1.
30. ^ Murphy, Brendan (2007). From Sheffield with Love. Sports Book Limited. pp. 39–41. ISBN 9781899807 56 7. 
31. ^ Sydney Mail 25 August 1883 p. 363 W.J. Hammersley, Reminiscences of Cricket and Other Sports
32. ^ Sport: Touchstone of Australian Life from the Australian Broadcasting Commission. First broadcast on Thursday 17/05/01
33. ^ Martin Flanagan, The Call. St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin, 1998, p. 8 Martin Flanagan, 'Sport and Culture'
34. ^ Gregory M de Moore. Victoria University. from Football Fever. Crossing Boundaries. Maribyrnong Press, 2005
35. ^ Minister opens show exhibition celebrating Aussie Rules' Koorie Heritage, Government Media Release accessed 4 June 2007
36. ^ http://www.realfooty.com.au/news/rfnews/buckleys-stories-make-a-great-journey/2009/05/08/1241727605504.html
37. ^ AFL's native roots a 'seductive myth' from theaustralian.com.au
38. ^ Goodes racist, says AFL historian
39. ^ Wilfrid R. Prest & Kerrie Round, 2001, The Wakefield Companion to South Australian History (p. 58)]
40. ^ Cited in Davis, p.49n
41. ^ ^{a b} B. W. O'Dwyer, March 1989, "The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football", Victorian Historical Journal, v.60, no.1.
42. ^ ^{a b c} Graeme Atkinson, 1981, "Everything You Ever Wanted to Know about Australian Rules Football but Couldn't be Bothered Asking", Five Mile Press
43. ^ Ross Hutchinson, 1998, "THE CLUBS. The Complete History of Every Club in the VFL/AFL", Penguin Books Australia Ltd.
44. ^ Stated during an interview of Martin Flanagan by Mick O'Regan, ABC Radio National "The Sports Factor", first broadcast on 2 January 2009. The interview was supported by a complete transcript that appeared on the Radio National website during January 2009.