- Cuisine of Hawaii
Modern cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many cuisines brought by multi-
ethnic immigrant s to the islands, particularly of American, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean,Polynesia n and Portuguese origins, and including food sources from plants and animals imported forHawaii an agricultural use from all over the world. Many local restaurants serve the ubiquitousplate lunch featuring the Asian staple, two scoops ofrice , a simplified version of Americanmacaroni salad (consisting ofmacaroni noodles andmayonnaise ), and a variety of different toppings ranging from thehamburger patty, a fried egg, andgravy of aLoco Moco , Japanese styleTonkatsu or the traditional lu'au favorite,Kalua Pig.History
Pre-contact period
When
Polynesia n seafarers arrived on theHawaiian Islands in 300–500 AD,Ref_label|A|a|none few edible plants existed in the new land, aside from a fewfern s and fruits that grew at higher elevations. Botanists and archaeologists believe that these voyagers introduced anywhere between 27 and possibly more than 30 plants to the islands, mainly for food.harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=216.] The most important of them wastaro .harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=478.] For centuries taro, and the "poi" made from taro, was the main staple of their diet, and it is still much loved today. In addition to taro,sweet potato es andyam s were planted. TheMarquesan s, the first settlers from Polynesia, broughtbreadfruit and theTahiti ans later introduced thebaking banana . These settlers from Polynesia also broughtcoconut s andsugarcane .harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=479.] They found plenty of fish, shellfish, andlimu in the new land.Flightless bird s were easy to catch and nests were full of eggs for the taking. MostPacific Islands had no meat animals except bats and lizards, so ancient Polynesians sailed the Pacific with pigs, chickens and dogs as cargo.harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=135-138.] Pigs were raised for religious sacrifice, and the meat was offered at altars, some of which was consumed by priests and the rest eaten in a mass celebration. The early Hawaiian diet was diverse, and may have included as many as 130 different types of seafood and 230 types of sweet potatoes.harvnb|Adams|2006|pp=90-92.] Some species of land and sea birds were consumed into extinction.harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=139.]Sea salt was a common condiment in ancient Hawaii, and "Inamona", arelish made of roasted, mashed "kukui " nutmeats, sea salt and sometimes mixed withseaweed s, often accompanied the meals. At important occasions, a traditional feast, "‘aha‘aina", was held. When a woman was to have her first child, her husband started raising a pig for the "‘Aha‘aina Mawaewae" feast that was celebrated for the birth of a child. Besides the pig, mullet, shrimps, crab, seaweeds and taro leaves were required for the feast.harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|pp=12-13.] The modern name for such feasts, "lū‘au ", was not used until 1856, replacing the Hawaiian words "‘aha‘aina" and "pā‘ina". [harvnb|Pukui|Elbert|1986|pp=214.] The name "lū‘au" came from the name of a food always served at a "‘aha‘aina" — young taro tops baked withcoconut milk and chicken oroctopus .Prior to cooking, pigs and dogs were killed by strangulation or by holding their nostrils shut, in order to conserve the animal's blood.harvnb|Schwabe|1979|p=171.] Meat was prepared by flattening out the whole eviscerated animal and broiling it over hot coals, or it was spitted on sticks. Large pieces of meat, such as fowl, pigs and dogs, would be typically cooked in
earth oven s, or spitted over a fire during ceremonial feasts.harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=3-5.] Hawaiian earth ovens, known as an "imu ", combineroasting andsteaming in a method called "kālua ". A pit is dug into earth and lined withvolcanic rock s and other rocks that do not split when heated to a high temperature, such asgranite .harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|p=16.] A fire is built withember s, and when the rocks are glowing hot, the embers are removed and the foods wrapped in "ti", ginger or banana leaves are put into the pit, covered with wet leaves, mats and a layer of earth. Water may be added through abamboo tube to create steam. The intense heat from the hot rocks cooked food thoroughly — the quantity of food for several days could be cooked at once, taken out and eaten as needed, and the cover replaced to keep the remainder warm.harvnb|Kane|1998|p=53.] Sweet potatoes, taro, breadfruit and other vegetables were cooked in the "imu", as well as fish.Saltwater eel was salted and dried before being put into the "imu".harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=271-273.] Chickens, pigs and dogs were put into the "imu" with hot rocks inserted in the abdominal cavities. Men did all of the cooking, and food for women was cooked in a separate "imu", afterwards men and women ate meals separately.Ref_label|B|b|none The ancient practice of cooking with the "imu" continues to this day. [harvnb|Corum|2000|p=3.]Post-contact period
In 1778, Captain
James Cook visited the island ofNiihau , leaving a ram goat, ewes, a boar, an English sow, and seeds for melons, pumpkins, and onions.harvnb|HRHAS|1850|pp=45-46.] In 1793, CaptainGeorge Vancouver brought the first cattle to the islands; longhorns from California were presented to KingKamehameha I .harvnb|Loomis|2006|p=8.] harvnb|Barnes|1999|pp=27-28.] With nonatural predator s, the new cattle multiplied out of control; the king hired an American man named John Parker to capture and domesticate cattle. Many of the cattle were butchered and beef was introduced to Hawaiian cuisine.In 1813,
pineapple was first cultivated in Honolulu byDon Francisco de Paula Marin ,harvnb|Paul|2003|p=253.] a Spanish botanist and advisor to King Kamehameha I. Although grape vines were introduced by Captain Vancouver around 1792, Marin is credited with the first Hawaiianvineyard in 1815 and planting the now rare Mission grape variety.harvnb|Miller|Bazore|Robbins|2002|p=30.] Marin also brewed the first beer in 1812, and planted the first coffee crop in 1817, but his plantings failed.harvnb|Miller|Bazore|Robbins|2002|pp=25-26.] Marin, called "Manini" by the Hawaiians, experimented with planting oranges, limes, beans, cabbages, potatoes, peaches, melons, maize and lettuce. He was the first to boil potatoes for the king.Fact|date=January 2008By the late 19th century, pineapple and sugarcane plantations owned and run by American settlers took over much of Hawaii's land, and these two crops became the most important sources of revenues for the Hawaiian economy.harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=477.]
Ethnic foods
As the plantations expanded the demand for labor grew, so the plantation owners hired immigrant workers, which included Chinese,
Koreans , Japanese, Filipinos, and Portuguese. Each ethnic group wanted its own food in workplaces, and farms and grocery markets were established. The Chinese immigrants broughtCantonese cuisine , cooking the firststir fry ,sweet and sour , anddim sum dishes in the Islands,harvnb|Henderson|1994|p=18.] and replaced poi with rice, adding their own herbs and spices. Chinese rice growers imported familiar fish varieties from Asia to stock local streams and irrigation ditches.harvnb|Gabaccia|2000|p=66.]Korean immigration to Hawaii broughtkimchi and built barbecue pits to cook marinated meats. Korean stylebulgogi or boneless meat with moderately-sweet garlic sauce andgalbi or meat with bones and moderately-sweet garlic sauce as well, and another Korean favoritebibimbab or mixed rice with seasoned vegetables,kimchi ,namul , sweet and spicygochujang and bulgogi topping also became an integral part of Hawaiian cuisine. [Poet Paul Lee's commentary for this article, May 14, 2008]The Portuguese immigrants came to Hawaii from the
Azores in the late 19th century,harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=134.] introducing their foods with an emphasis on pork, tomatoes andchili pepper s, and built "forno", their traditionalbeehive oven , to make "Pão Doce", thePortuguese sweet bread andmalasada .Whaler s brought in salted fish, which ultimately becamelomi-lomi salmon . The Japanese broughtbento andsashimi , and, although many of their vegetable seeds would not grow in the climate of the Islands, they succeeded in makingtofu andsoy sauce .harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=478.] The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so their cooking relied on frying, steaming, broiling, andsimmering , leading to the popularization oftempura andnoodle soup s in Hawaii. By the early 20th century, the Japanese were the largest ethnic group and rice became the third largest crop in the Islands.harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=5.]Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1900, contributing spicy, Spanish-seasoned thick soups,casserole s, andmeat turnover s. Filipinos reached Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, the adobo style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple instead of rice.Samoans arrived in 1919, building their earth ovens above ground instead of below like the "imu", and made poi from fruit instead of taro. After theVietnam War ended in 1975, Vietnamese immigrants arrived, [harvnb|Corum|2000|p=194.] and Thai andVietnamese cuisine was added to the menu, featuring Southeast Asianlemongrass ,fish sauce andgalangal .Late 19th century - 20th century
The first restaurant in
Honolulu was opened in 1849 by a Portuguese man named Peter Fernandez. Situated behind the Bishop & Co. bank, the establishment was known as the "eating house" and was followed by other restaurants, such as Leon Dejean's "Parisian Restaurant" at the corner of Hotel and Fort Streets. [harvnb|Rea|Ting|1991|p=30.] In 1872, theRoyal Hawaiian Hotel opened on Hotel Street, and as one of the most refined hotels in the Pacific, it catered to wealthy clients. The Royal Hawaiian dining room served dishes on par with the best restaurants in Europe, with an 1874 menu offering dishes such as mullet, spring lamb, chicken with tomatoes, and Cabinet Pudding. [harvnb|Rea|Ting|1991|p=48.]The massive pineapple industry of Hawaii was born when the "Pineapple King",
James Dole , planted pineapples on the island ofOahu in 1901. In 1922, Dole purchased the island ofLanai for a large-scale pineapple production. By 1950, hisHawaiian Pineapple Company was the largest pineapple company in the world.In 1905,
George R. Carter ,Territorial Governor of Hawai'i , promoted increasing local agricultural production saying that "there was a time when Hawaii supplied California with flour, also potatoes and other vegetables. Now California produces her own and sends part of the surplus here." Newspaper editorials of the time also questioned why locally-grownguava s were rotting on the ground while agribusiness were planting non-native pineapples in Hawaii. These concerns were not addressed until almost a century later, when the regional cuisine movement began encouraging the food industry to "grow local, buy local, and eat local." [harvnb|Adams|2006|p=10] Since the 1970s, pineapples were grown more cheaply inSoutheast Asia , so the Hawaiian agriculture has taken a diverse approach, producing a variety of crops including squash, tomatoes, chili peppers andlettuce . From 1978-1988, chefs who came to Hawaii would avoid Hawaii-grown ingredients like their European counterparts, preferring to ship everything in from the U.S. mainland, or as far away as Australia, New Zealand, and Europe.harvnb|Henderson|1994|p=xvi]In August 1991, a group of chefs in Hawaii came together to form an organization to create a new
American regional cuisine , highlighting Hawaii's locally grown ingredients and diverse ethnic styles. In 1992, twelve chefs includingSam Choy ,George Mavrothalassitis ,Alan Wong , andRoy Yamaguchi , came together to sponsor a cookbook to be sold for charity.harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=7.] The goal of this new group of chefs was to link local agriculture with the restaurant industry, making Hawaii Regional Cuisine a reflection of the community. For this, they took an uninspired international hotel cuisine based on imported products and replaced it with a cuisine based on locally grown foods.Japanese-American bakerRobert Taira , came up with a recipe for the Hawaiian version of Portuguese sweet bread in the 1950s. Taira began to commercially produce the bread in Hawaii, and it became successful in Honolulu bakeries and coffee shops, with plant production expanding toCalifornia andSouth Carolina . By the 1980s, Taira's company, King's Hawaiian Bakery, was grossing US$20 million annually.Don the Beachcomber , a former bootlegger, opened what is acknowledged to be the first of Tiki restaurants, and claims the creation of themai tai . As servicemen and servicewomen from thePacific theater of World War II began coming home they brought recipes and tastes that could not be satisfied at the Italian, French, and American restaurants of the era. Tiki restaurants soon began appearing that were often accompanied bytiki bar s with tropical drinks. One of these chains that took advantage of this new clientele with a taste for the exotic was run byTrader Vic . Of the 26 restaurants which at one time existed, only a few, such as theEmeryville location, remain. Much of the food served at tiki restaurants is considered to beCantonese cuisine , but the fusion of Hawaiian ingredients is what made it tiki.Ingredients
Vegetables, fruits and nuts
*Taro ("Colocasia esculenta"): A popular and ancient plant that has been harvested for at least 30,000 years by indigenous people in
New Guinea .harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=252-267.] There are hundreds of varieties of taro, and thecorm of thewetland variety makes the best "poi", as well as taro starch or flour. The dry-land variety has a crispy texture and used for making taro chips. The smaller Japanese variety is used for stewed dishes.
*Breadfruit ("Artocarpus altilis")
*Candle Nut ("Aleurites moluccana") or Kukui: Roasted kernels traditionally used as candles; main ingrediet in the ancient Hawaiian condiment, 'inamona
*Coconut ("Cocos nucifera")
*Polynesian Arrowroot ("Tacca leontopetaloides") or "pia" plant: Primary thickener. Cooked arrowroot is mixed with papaya, banana, or pumpkin in baked deserts. Haupia, a Hawaiian coconut cream pudding, uses pia as a thickener.
*Ki (also Ti) ("Cordyline fruticosa"): After distillation technique came to Hawaii, the root of the ti was turned into liquor called 'okolehao'
*Winged Beans ("Psophocarpus tetragonolobus")Meat
Pork
;SpamThe
Hormel company's canned meat product Spam has been highly popular in Hawaii for decades. Hawaiians are the second largest consumers of Spam in the world, right behindGuam . Originally brought to Hawaii by American servicemen in their rations,harvnb|Kulick|Meneley|2005|p=187.] Spam became an important source of protein for locals after fishing around the Islands was prohibited duringWorld War II . In 2005, Hawaiians consumed more than five million cans of Spam.harvnb|Adams|2006|p=58-59.]Spam is used in local dishes in a variety of ways, most commonly fried and served with rice. In breakfast, fried eggs are often served together. Spam can also be wrapped in "ti" and roasted, skewered and deep fried, or
stir-fried with cabbage. It is added to saimin orfried rice , mashed with tofu, or served with coldsōmen or bakedmacaroni and cheese . It is also used inchutney for pupu, in sandwich withmayonnaise , or baked with guava jelly.Spam musubi , a slice of sweet and salty marinated Spam tied to a cake of rice with a strip ofnori , is very popular as a snack in Hawaii. Spam musubi is served in sushi restaurants in Hawaii, having become popular in the 1980s.Beef
In the 19th century, John Parker brought over Mexican cowboys to train the Hawaiians in
cattle ranching . The Hawaiian cowboys ofKamuela andKula came to be called "paniolo s". Cattle ranching grew rapidly for the next one hundred years. In 1960, half of the land in Hawaii was devoted to ranching for beef export, but by 1990 the number had shrunk to 25 percent.harvnb|Miller|Latham|Flynn|1998|p=83.] The "paniolos" chewed "pipikaula" ("beef rope"), a salted and dried beef that resemblesbeef jerky . "Pipikaula" would usually bebroil ed before serving. [harvnb|Choy|Cook|2003|p=63.] With the influence of Asian cooking, beef strips are commonly marinated insoy sauce . When beef is dried in the sun, a screened box is traditionally used to keep the meat from dust and flies. Dried meat could often be found as a relish or appetizer at a "lū‘au".harvnb|Adams|2006|p=98.]Fish and seafood
Tuna is the most important fish in Hawaiian cuisine.harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=480.] Varieties include theskipjack tuna ("aku"), theyellowfin tuna ("ahi"), and thealbacore tuna ("tombo"). Ahi in particular has a long history, since ancient Hawaiians used it on long ocean voyages because it is well preserved when salted and dried.harvnb|Laudan|1996|p=265-276.] A large portion of the local tuna fishery goes to Japan to be sold forsashimi . Tuna is eaten as sashimi in Hawaii as well, but is also grilled orsautéed , or made into poke.The Pacific blue marlin ("kajiki") is
barbecue d or grilled, but should not be overcooked due to its very low fat content. The broadbill swordfish ("shutome"), popular and shipped all over the mainland United States, is high in fat and itssteak s may be grilled, broiled, or used instir-fries . Thegrouper s ("hapuu") are most often steamed. The red snapper ("onaga") is steamed, poached, or baked. Thepink snapper ("opakapaka") has a higher fat, and is steamed or baked, served with a light sauce. TheWahoo ("ono") is grilled or sautéed, and thedolphin fish ("mahimahi") is usually cut into steaks and fried or grilled. The moonfish ("opah") is used for broiling, smoking, or making sashimi.pices
Teriyaki is the most popular way of treating meats, including Spam.*Five spice
*Char siu
*Wasabi
*Patis andBagoong ,Fish sauce s
*Jicama
*Shoyu (Soy sauce)
*Huli-huli sauceDishes
*
Chicken long rice - Chicken cooked with chicken broth, ginger, green onions, and long rice
* Kalua Pig -Pulled pork with marinated, steamed cabbage
*Crack seed
*Kona coffee
*Lau lau - Steamed fish and pork wrapped intaro leaves and ati leaf, also can include chicken, chicken-only, or pork-only
*Loco Moco - Hamburger patties served with gravy and topped with two eggs
*Lomi salmon - Sushi-grade salmon cubed combined with tomatoes, Maui onions, and chili pepper
*Malasada - Portuguese donut deep fried and coated with sugar
*Manapua -Pidgin forbao , usually filled withchar siu
*Mochi
*Musubi
*Opihi
*Pasteles
* Poi - Mashed taro root
*Portuguese sweet bread
*Saimin -Noodle soup dish with various meats and/or dumplings
*Squid luau Poke
Poke is a local cuisine that originally involved preserving raw fish with sea salt and rubbing ("lomi") it with seasonings or cutting it into small pieces. Seasonings made of seaweed, kukui nut, and sea salt were traditionally used for the Hawaiian poke. Since first contact with Western and Asian cultures,
green onions , chili peppers, and soy sauce have become common additions to it.harvnb|Piianaia|2007|loc= [http://www.waimeagazette.com/sept97_poke.htm Waimea Gazette] .] Poke is different fromsashimi , since the former is usually rough-cut and piled onto a plate, and can be made with less expensive pieces of fish.harvnb|Nenes|2007|p=485.]During the early 1970s, poke became an
appetizer to have with beer or to bring to a party.harvnb|Long|2003|pp=116.]Plate lunch
Usually served during lunch, plate lunch consists of an entreé of meat or seafood, two scoops of rice, and macaroni salad.
Drinks
*Hawaiian tropical tiki cocktails like the Blue Hawaii and the
Mai-Tai make use ofrum . The Mai-Tai uses Barbadian, Jamaican, or Haitian rum. Hana Bay rum used to be produced in Hana, Maui, but is now produced in theVirgin Islands and bottled on the U.S. mainland. The rum is blended with a variety oftropical fruit juices and served with a decorative piece of fruit.harvnb|Schindler|Schindler|1981|p=14.]
* "Okolehao" is a traditional Hawaiian liquor made from "ti" plant, which often accompanies "lu'au".
*Kava ("Piper methysticum") (okinaawa) is a traditional beverage of Oceania thought to have originated inVanuatu .harvnb|Brennan|2000|p=230-231.] In modern times, kava bars have experienced some popularity in Hawaii, with commercial kava plantations on Maui, Molokai, Kauai, and Oahu.
*Hawaii wine is produced mostly on the island of Maui and the island of Hawaii. The state mainly producesfruit wine such as a pineapple sparkling wine. There are also a number of local breweries on the island of Hawaii, with the largest being the Kona Brewing Company in Kailua-Kona.
*Hawaii beer is represented by the largest brewpub in the state,Kona Brewing Company . From 1901-1998, "Primo" was one of the most popular Hawaiian beers, now defunct. Historically, craft beers (microbrews) have been slow to take off in Hawaii due to a restrictive state law on brewpub sales. However, the law changed in 2003, and growlers are now available. Sam Choy's Big Aloha beer is one popularmicrobrew .harvnb|Adams|2007|loc= [http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Nov/28/il/hawaii711280363.html The Honolulu Advertiser] .]Notes and references
Notes
a. Note_label|A|a|none The early settlement history of Hawaiʻi is not completely resolved. One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaiʻi in the third century from the Marquesas and were followed by Tahitian settlers in 1300 AD who conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that there was an extended period of contact but not necessarily for a Tahitian invasion.harvnb|Kirch|2001|p=80.]b. Note_label|B|b|none Men and women ate their meals separately to preserve the distinction between male and female "
mana ", which was thought to be blurred by both sexes handling the same food. In addition, some foods were forbidden to women, such as pork, certain kinds of fish and most types of bananas.References
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last = Salama
first = Toni
title = A little Hilo history
newspaper =The Seattle Times
year = 2007
date=2007-12-02
url = http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/travel/2004040424_hilohistory02.html
accessdate =2007-11-13 .
* Citation
last = Schindler
first = Roana
last2 = Schindler
first2 = Gene
title = Hawaiian Cookbook
publisher = Dover Publications
year = 1981
isbn = 0486241858.
* Citation
last = Schwabe
first = Calvin, W.
title = Unmentionable Cuisine
publisher = University Press of Virginia
year = 1979
isbn = 0813911621.
* Citation
last = Shintani
first = Terry
title = Hawaii Diet
publisher = Atria
year = 1999
isbn = 0671026666.
* Citation
last = Tabrah
first = Ruth M.
author-link =
title = Hawaii: A History
year = 1984
publisher = W. W. Norton & Company
location =
pages =
url =
isbn = 0393302202.External links
* [http://www.hawaii.gov/hidocs/hmp.html Hawaii Mixed Plate Cookbooks: A Bibliography]
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