Tardive dyskinesia

Tardive dyskinesia
Not to be confused with dyskinetic cerebral palsy.
Tardive dyskinesia
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 G24.0
ICD-9 333.85
OMIM 272620
DiseasesDB 12909
eMedicine neuro/362

Tardive dyskinesia (English pronunciation: /ˈtɑrdɨv ˌdɪskɨˈniːʒə/) is a difficult-to-treat form of dyskinesia (disorder resulting in involuntary, repetitive body movements) that can be tardive (having a slow or belated onset).[1] It frequently appears after long-term or high-dose use of antipsychotic drugs,[N 1] or in children and infants as a side effect from usage of drugs for gastrointestinal disorders prevention.[N 2][2]

Contents

Features

Tardive dyskinesia is characterized by repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements, such as grimacing, tongue protrusion, lip smacking, puckering and pursing of the lips, and rapid eye blinking. Rapid movements of the extremities may also occur. Impaired movements of the fingers may also appear. For comparison, patients with Parkinson's disease have difficulty moving, while patients with tardive dyskinesia have difficulty not moving.

Other closely related neurological disorders have been recognized as variants of tardive dyskinesia. Tardive dystonia is similar to standard dystonia but permanent. Tardive akathisia involves painful feelings of inner tension and anxiety and a compulsive drive to move the body.[citation needed] In the extreme, the individual undergoes internal torture and can no longer sit still. Tardive tourettism is a tic disorder that can closely mimic Tourette Syndrome, sometimes to the point where the two can only be distinguished by the details of their onsets. Tardive myoclonus, a rare disorder, presents as brief jerks of muscles in the face, neck, trunk, and extremities.

Tardive dyskinesia is often misdiagnosed as a mental illness rather than a neurological disorder, and as a result patients are prescribed neuroleptic drugs which enhance the probability that the patient will develop a severe and disabling case. In such cases, it is critical to properly identify the signs of the disorder and stop neuroleptic treatment as early as possible. The neuroleptic drugs have a tendency to suppress or mask the very symptoms they are causing, thus making disorder identification more difficult. The symptoms may then abruptly break out after drug usage is reduced or stopped. Doctors must be very careful to limit the use of neuroleptics, and thoroughly examine patients periodically for signs of abnormal movements. Physicians should educate patients and families about the dangers of tardive dyskinesia.[2]

Cause

Despite the fact that tardive dyskinesia was described 50 years ago, its mechanism is poorly understood. The most compelling line of evidence suggests that tardive dyskinesia may result primarily from neuroleptic-induced dopamine supersensitivity in the nigrostriatal pathway, with the D2 dopamine receptor being most affected. Neuroleptics act primarily on this dopamine system, and older neuroleptics, which have greater affinity for the D2 binding site, are associated with high risk for tardive dyskinesia.[3] The D2 hypersensitivity hypothesis is also supported by evidence of a dose-response relationship, withdrawal effects, studies on D2 agonists and antagonists, animal studies, and genetic polymorphism research.[3]

Given similar doses of the same neuroleptic, differences among individuals still exist in the likelihood of developing tardive dyskinesia. Such individual differences may be due to genetic polymorphisms, which code for D2 receptor binding site affinity, or prior exposure to environmental toxins. Decreased functional reserve or cognitive dysfunction, associated with aging, mental retardation, alcohol and drug abuse, or traumatic head injuries, has also been shown to increase risk of developing the disorder among those treated with neuroleptics.[3] Antipsychotic drugs can sometimes camouflage the signs of tardive dyskinesia from occurring in the early stages; this can be from the individual having an increased dose of an antipsychotic drug, although when tardive dyskinesia worsens the signs become visible (Videbeck 2006).[citation needed]

Other dopamine antagonists and antiemetics can cause tardive dyskinesia, such as metoclopramide and promethazine, used to treat gastrointestinal disorders. While newer atypical antipsychotics such as olanzapine and risperidone appear to have fewer dystonic effects, only clozapine has been shown to have a lower risk of tardive dyskinesia than older antipsychotics.[4] There has been a reported case of the anti-psychotic medication Aripiprazole, a partial agonist at D2 receptors, leading to tardive dyskinesia.[5]

The available research seems to suggest that the concurrent prophylactic use of a neuroleptic and an antiparkinsonian drug is useless to avoid early extrapyramidal side-effects and may render the patient more sensitive to tardive dyskinesia. Since 1973 the use of these drugs has been found to be associated with the development of tardive dyskinesia.[6][7] Since some of the symptoms of tardive dyskinesia can be interpreted as schizophrenia by doctors, they may prescribe additional neuroleptic drugs to treat it, leading to increased risk of more prevalent tardive dyskinesia.

Treatment

Primary prevention of tardive dyskinesia is achieved by using the lowest effective dose of a neuroleptic for the shortest time (Although, with diseases of chronic psychosis such as schizophrenia, this strategy must be balanced with the fact that increased dosages of neuroleptics are more beneficial in preventing recurrence of psychosis). If tardive dyskinesia is diagnosed, the causative drug should be discontinued. Tardive dyskinesia may persist after withdrawal of the drug for months, years or even permanently.

The dopamine-depleting drug tetrabenazine has been used to treat tardive dyskinesia[8][9] and other movement disorders.

Zofran has shown some benefit in experimental studies on tardive dyskinesia and a variety of anti-Parkinsonian medications are used such as Aricept, Baclofen, Requip and Mirapex. Clonidine is used for dystonic spasms and can be of help. Botox injections are used for minor focal dystonia, but not in more advanced tardive dyskinesia.[10] A review paper found Benzodiazepines[N 3] to be effective in alleviating the symptoms of tardive dyskinesia.[11] However, like most anticonvulsants, benzodiazepines may cause tremors as well as benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome upon rapid discontinuation.

Natural remedies, such as vitamin E (Alpha-Tocopherol), rhodiola, omega 3 fatty acids or melatonin can be used, although they have no proven efficacy in controlled studies.

In males, the branched-chain amino acid formula Tarvil, containing the amino acids valine, isoleucine, and leucine in a 3:3:4 ratio has been reported as beneficial for motor symptoms.[12]

Epidemiology

Tardive dyskinesia most commonly occurs in patients with psychiatric conditions who are treated with antipsychotic medications for many years. One study reported that within the first four years of using antipsychotic medications, 18.5 percent of young adults develop symptoms. Furthermore, 31 percent of those over 55 years of age develop tardive dyskinesia symptoms in the same time frame.[13] Other estimates suggest that it occurs in 15-30% of patients receiving treatment with antipsychotic neuroleptic medications for 3 months or longer.[citation needed] “A study being conducted at the Yale University School of Medicine has estimated that 32% of patients develop persistent tics after 5 years on major tranquilizers, 57% by 15 years, and 68% by 25 years.”[14] Other estimates suggest that with each year of neuroleptic use, 5% of the patients will show signs of tardive dyskinesia, i.e., 5% after one year, 10% after two years, 15% after three years with no clear upper limit.[15] Eventually, according to these estimates, if on the drugs long enough, the majority of patients will develop the disorder.[16] The incidence of tardive dyskinesia varies with the type of neuroleptic (e.g., haloperidol (Haldol) more often than perphenazine (Trilafon)), daily dose and duration of treatment (the higher the daily dose and the longer the duration of treatment, the higher the risk).

The elderly and female patients are more prone to develop tardive dyskinesia.[citation needed] Cigarette smokers also have a higher prevalence of tardive dyskinesia.[citation needed] Children and adolescents are much more sensitive to the early and late extrapyramidal side-effects of neuroleptics than adults.[citation needed] Because of this, treatment of youngsters with neuroleptics may be contraindicated, and many authorities believe that they should be initiated only as a last resort, using the lowest dose regime possible and the shortest duration of treatment in accordance with good patient management.[citation needed]

Tardive dyskinesia can become disabling socially and cause people to self isolate, due to the societal stigma as well. Patients and/or their families (guardians and/or caregivers/nurses) should receive full information about the neuroleptic before starting treatment (informed consent).[citation needed] The benefits need to be weighed by the individual patient/guardian and their physician. However, the antipsychotic clozapine is not known to cause tardive dyskinesia and can be an option and is not used on a more widespread basis because of blood dyscrasias as well as other side effects of concern.[citation needed].

The still hypothetical conditions tardive psychosis, tardive dysphrenia and tardive dysmentia remain little understood and as yet unconfirmed.[citation needed] New classes of antipsychotics in study such as glycine and other NMDA receptor modulators in not affecting the dopaminergic system in Phase II FDA studies have been shown not to cause tardive dyskinesia and may, once realized as FDA approved antipsychotics, be a new treatment modality that will not create this condition.[citation needed]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Compazine, Risperdal
  2. ^ Propulsid, Reglan
  3. ^ Benzodiazepine drugs e.g. Ativan, Valium, or Klonopin

References

  1. ^ "tardive dyskinesia" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  2. ^ a b Breggin 2001
  3. ^ a b c Hoerger 2007
  4. ^ Craig & Stitzel; Modern Pharmacology (6th ed) pp. 401.
  5. ^ Abbasian, C. (2009) A case of aripiprazole and tardive dyskinesia, J Psychopharmacol, vol.23, no.2:214-215
  6. ^ Crane 1973a
  7. ^ Crane 1973b
  8. ^ Rauchverger, Isakov & Jabarin 2007
  9. ^ Fernandez & Friedman 2003
  10. ^ Brašić & Bronson 2010
  11. ^ Soares-Weiser & Bhoopathi 2006
  12. ^ Richardson, MA; Bevans, ML; Read, LL; Chao, HM; Clelland, JD; Suckow, RF; Maher, TJ; Citrome, L (2003), "Efficacy of the branched-chain amino acids in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia in men", The American journal of psychiatry 160 (6): 1117–24, PMID 12777270. 
  13. ^ Saltz, Woerner & Kane 1991
  14. ^ Glenmullen 2000 ::referring to Glazer, Morgenstern & Doucette 1993
  15. ^ Jeste & Caligiuri 1993
  16. ^ Whitaker , Robert - Mad in America: Bad Science, Bad Medicine, and the Enduring Mistreatment of the Mentally Ill, Perseus Pub., c2002

Bibliography

External links


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Look at other dictionaries:

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  • tardive dyskinesia — n a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary uncontrollable movements esp. of the mouth, tongue, trunk, and limbs and occurring esp. as a side effect of prolonged use of antipsychotic drugs (as phenothiazine) abbr. TD * * * a condition… …   Medical dictionary

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  • tardive dyskinesia — noun Etymology: tardive tending toward late development (from French, feminine of tardif, from Middle French) + dyskinesia Date: 1964 a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary uncontrollable movements especially of the mouth, tongue,… …   New Collegiate Dictionary

  • tardive dyskinesia — /tadɪv dɪskaɪˈnizə/ (say tahdiv diskuy neezhuh) noun a disorder of movement characterised by abnormal uncontrollable movements of the mouth, lips, tongue, and jaws; associated with the long term use of antipsychotic medication. {a rare variant… …  

  • tardive dyskinesia — [ˌtα:dɪv ˌdɪskɪ ni:zɪə] noun Medicine a neurological disorder characterized by involuntary movements of the face and jaw. Origin 1960s: tardive from Fr. tardif, tardive (see tardy) …   English new terms dictionary

  • tardive dyskinesia — noun involuntary rolling of the tongue and twitching of the face or trunk or limbs; often occurs in patients with Parkinsonism who are treated with phenothiazine • Hypernyms: ↑dyskinesia …   Useful english dictionary

  • tardive dyskinesia — Pathol. a disorder characterized by restlessness and involuntary rolling of the tongue or twitching of the face, trunk, or limbs, usually occurring as a complication of long term therapy with antipsychotic drugs. [1965 70] * * * …   Universalium

  • tardive dyskinesia — noun involuntary, repetitive movements as a side effect of dopamine antagonists …   Wiktionary

  • tardive dyskinesia — a condition characterized by involuntary repetitive movements of the facial muscles and the tongue, usually resembling continued chewing motions, and the muscles of the limbs. It is associated with long term medication with certain antipsychotic… …   The new mediacal dictionary

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