History of Bratislava

This page gives an overview of the history of Bratislava - the capital of Slovakia and the country's largest city.

Prehistory

In the area where present-day Bratislava lies, 3 skeletons of the "(Epi)Pliopithecus vindobonensis" were found in the borough Devínska Nová Ves in 1957, dating 25–15 million years ago. Teeth of the "Griphopithecus suessi" (formerly known as "Sivapithecus darwiny" or "Dryopithecus darwiny"), dating 14–10 million years ago, were also found in Devínska Nová Ves, this time in 1902. From the Paleolithic period, hand-axes and other stone tools of "Homo heidelbergensis" (from the periods about 0.45 million years and about 0.3 million years ago) and of Neanderthal man were found. The first known permanent settlements on the town's territory (Linear Ceramics Culture) was in Neolithic. The first known fortified settlement on the area of later medieval castle of Bratislava appered in Eneolithic. In the Bronze Age there were settlements from both older and younger (Urnfield cultures) part of period. On the area of later Devín caste one finds important clues to final period of Bronze Age (Podoli Culture), when a fortified settlement arose on the strategic place: rock-cliff over river Morava joining river Danube. Older Iron Age brought a shift of the settlement centre again to the area of today's historical centre and castle of Bratislava. Many finds support the theory that both castle-hill and area of the town (on an important river-crossing) formed an important seat of local Hallstatt Culture Prince, while richly furnished mounds (barrows) were excavated on eastern suburbs of the city. In the younger Iron Age or La-Tène period 450-50 BC] : Celts (more exactly the tribe of Boii) formed between 125 BC-50 BC an important Celtic "oppidum" (fortified town) with a mint on area of castle hill and historical centre. There is an acropolis on the castle hill and some settlements below (crafts) and around it (farming). Bratislava is a genuine town for the first time in history (it will become a de facto town again in the 9th century AD and then again in the 11th century). Most famous finds are represented by silver coins, bearing inscriptions, (biatecs in most cases). [cite web | publisher = City of Bratislava | url = http://www.visit.bratislava.sk/en/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=700014&id=1005&p1=1569 | title = History - Celtic settlements | year = 2005 |accessmonthday = May 15 | accessyear = 2007 | year = 2005] Biatec could be name of the local prince who organized the minting or the name of the place itself. After the bloody defeat from Dacian forces under the leadership of king Burebista (shortly after the middle of 1st century BC) rest of the Celts retreated to the site of Devín, creating a smaller, more easily protectable hill-fort settlement. The arrival or Germans from West forced the rest of Celts to seek protection under the Romans on the other (right) side of Danube.

1st century–10th century

From the 1st century until 4th century the border of the Roman Empire (Limes Romanus) ran along river Danube. [Kováč et al., "Kronika Slovenska 1", p. 73] The northern side belonged to the Free Barbaricum (German tribes - Marcomanni) and southern side belonged to Rome. Under the suburb of Rusovce, the remains of the Roman border town "Gerulata" have been excavated, as well as cemeteries and farming background of the town (Villa Rusticas). Despite belonging officially to Barbaricum, several sites of Roman presence are to be found on the area of the city: Devín Castle hill with Roman military garrison, Stupava with its trading (?) station, Dúbravka with remains of Roman baths (attempt to built Villa Rustica?). The Slavs arrived to the area between the 5th and 6th centuries during the Migration Period.

In 568 the Eurasian Avars arrived in the area. After a successful insurrection of the Slavs (probably at Bratislava-Devín) against Avarian rule in this region, Samo is made King of the Slavs in 623, establishing first known Slavic political entity, the Samo's Empire, which lasted until 658. [Kováč et al., "Kronika Slovenska 1", p. 94] From the 8th century until 907 the Bratislava Castle as well as the Devín Castle are important centres of the Principality of Nitra and (since 833) of Great Moravia. [Kováč et al., "Kronika Slovenska 1", p. 95] The Bavarian historian Johannes Aventinus will write in the 16th century that in 805 the Bratislava Castle was repaired during the reign of its lord, Prince Vratislav, on the place of the ruins of an old Roman settlement allegedly called Pisonium, and was named Wratisslaburgium; if this is true, Prince Vratislav is, after Samo, only the second Slavic historical figure known from the Middle Danube region.

In 864 the first written reference to the Devín Castle (Dowina) appears in the Fuldish Annals. Around 900 it was probably owned by the (originally) Lower Pannonian prince Braslav (Bräslav, Brazlaw) - or by a magnate of the same name - who was a vassal of Bavaria (Germany). Earlier, it was thought that Bräslav was the person who gave the town Bratislava its German name Brezalauspurc (see 907), later Pressburg, and maybe also its new Slovak name Bratislava - see under Bratislava - Names; nowadays, it is assumed that Pressburg/Brezalauspurc is a distortion of Predeslausburg, a name derived from Predslav, who was (according to some historians) the ruler of Bratislava around 900 and the 3rd son of the Great Moravian king Svätopluk; the modern Slovak name Bratislava, however, is assumed to be derived (by mistake) from the name of the Czech ruler Bretislav I. The first written reference to Bratislava (as Brezalauspurc) [Špiesz, "Bratislava v stredoveku", p. 9] appears in 907, in connection with the battle(s) of Bratislava (in the Salzburg Annals): The Bavarians are totally defeated by the Magyars; as a result, the Frankish East March ceases and is occupied by the Magyars (907–955). Traditionally, this is considered the end of the state Great Moravia. The town is now part of emerging medieval Hungary.

1000–1241

From 1000 to the early 13th century a market settlement (the future town centre) grows below the Bratislava Castle (first written reference in 1151) and becomes an important centre in early 13th century. Further settlements in the surroundings follow. At the same time, the territory around Bratislava is annexed into the Kingdom of Hungary and became a key economic and administrative centre at the kingdom's frontier.cite web | publisher = City of Bratislava | url = http://www.visit.bratislava.sk/en/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=700014&id=1008&p1=1572 | title = History - Bratislava in the Middle Ages | year = 2005 |accessmonthday = May 15 | accessyear = 2007] The Castle became the one with the best fortification in Hungary because of its position, it became a site of frequent attacks and battles, along with the city, and a place of frequent stay of Hungarian kings (who mainly hold tournaments and parties), so it receives a more luxurious equipment. Around 1000 the Bratislava county (comitatus), one of the first counties in Hungary, is founded probably by Grand Prince Stephen I. Coins with the inscriptions "PHANUS REX" and "RESLAVVA CIV" were found in Sweden; some scholars claim that the coins were minted in
"(p)RESLAVVA CIV(itas)" or "(b)RESLAVVA CIV(itas)" ("i.e.", in the town of Bratislava), but other authors point out that no coins of this type have been found on the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, their weight and diameter differ from King Stephen's other coins and their inscriptions are confused which suggest that they are conterfeit coins minted abroad on the sample of other coins that had been minted following the patterns of King Stephen's coins with the inscriptions "STEPHANUS REX" and "REGIA CIVITAS". [cite book | last = Györffy | first = György | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = István király és műve "(King Stephen and his Work)"| publisher = Balassi Kiadó | date = 2000 | location = Budapest | page = 340| url = | doi = | id = | isbn = ]

In 1030 the Czech duke Břetislav I, participating in a campaign of the German emperor Konrad II against Hungary, devastates present-day western Slovakia and undertakes an attack against the Bratislava castle but is defeated by the Hungarian king. 12 years later Břetislav I and the troops of the German king Henry III temporarily conquer Bratislava. Henry undertakes a new invasion in 1043.

In 1052 German king Henry III besieges Bratislava for 2 months without success, but causes considerable damage to the castle. The following year, Pope Leo IX personally visits the town to achieve a peace between Henry and the Hungarian king. In 1073 and 1074 Hungarian king Solomon, who was based at Bratislava castle during his fighting against Géza and Duke Ladislaus, had the castle reconstructed. Hungarians settle in the market settlement below the castle in several waves in the 12 and 13th centuries, joining the previously predominantly Slovak inhabitants thereFact|date=May 2008. In 1108 German king Henry V along with the Czech duke Svatopluk fails to conquer Bratislava castle. In 1109 a new attack of the Czechs (undertaken as a revenge for a Hungarian attack of Moravia) fails. Boris, who claimed for the throne against King Géza I of Hungary, although his mother had been repelled by her husband, King Coloman of Hungary because of adultery, besieged and conquered the Bratislava castle in 1146.cite book | last = Benda | first = Kálmán (editor) | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Magyarország történeti kronológiája "("The Historical Chronology of Hungary")"| publisher = Akadémiai Kiadó | year = 1981 | location = Budapest | pages = 102, 108| url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 963 05 2661 1] The Hungarian king has to buy it back. The Hungarian king Stephen III is living in Bratislava castle in the 1160s and has its fortification improved. Participants of the Third Crusade to the Holy Land, led by the German king Frederick I Barbarossa, gather at Bratislava castle in 1189.

1241–1536

In 1241 and 1242 the Mongols fail to conquer the fortified castle and the town below it, but temporarily devastate the surrounding settlements. The castle is adapted after these attacks. After 1242 German colonists come to the town and gradually their number will increase, so that till the late 19th century they will represent by far the largest ethnic group in the town. In 1271 and 1273–1276 the town is captured by the King of Bohemia, Ottakar II in connection with fighting between Hungary and Bohemia because of Styria. In this connection, the (1st) Peace of Pressburg is signed in 1271.

The city is captured by the Hungarian noble and palatine Nicolaus von Güssing in 1285–1286, who (temporarily) burns down the castle in 1286, but his revolt against the king is defeated. In 1287–1291 the city is captured by the Austrian duke Albert of Habsburg. Albert is defeated by the Hungarian noble Matthew Csák of Trenčín, who was the leader of Bratislava and Trenčín counties at that time and Bratislava belongs to Hungary again.

The town (part below the castle) is conferred its (first known) town privileges by the Hungarian king Andrew III in 1291. [Špiesz, "Bratislava v stredoveku", p. 43] Earlier town privileges are not known, but probable, because Bratislava has been called a "town" as early as around 1250. After 1291, the town received many privileges from Hungarian kings, especially from the emperor Sigismund in the 15th century. After the death of the Hungarian king Andrew III, Bratislava is annexed by Austria in 1301, because Andrew's widow gave the town to the Habsburgs. The Habsburgs return it to Hungary in 1322, but occupy it again. It is only in 1338 that the town finally becomes part of Hungary again. In 1405 the town was declared a "free royal town" by King Sigismund of Luxemburg. Not only Bratislava but all townsFact|date=May 2008 in Hungary got this status (meaning that they received “collective nobility”, "i.e." the status of a feudal lord with all its privileges) because Sigismund wanted to restrain the increasing power of (true) feudal lords in Hungary. The Hussites first appeared in 1428, when they burned down the suburbs of Bratislava. Negotiations held year later in Bratislava between Sigismund of Luxemburg and the Hussites (in April and in June) fail. Between 1432 and 1434 Hussites tried to conquer the city but their attacks fail. The first bridge over the Danube in Bratislava was built in 1434, but it was destroyed by floods next year. [Janota, "Bratislavské rarity", p. 61] In 1434 and 1435 the amount of payments by Hungary, against which the Hussites will leave Slovakia, is being officially negotiated. In 1436 Sigismund of Luxemburg awards Bratislava the right to use its own coat of arms [Špiesz, "Bratislava v stredoveku", p. 132] and orders to improve the fortification of the castle (because of the last Hussite invasion during that year). From 1439 to 1486 another bridge over the Danube existed in Bratislava, being washed away by flood in 1486. [Janota, "Bratislavské rarity", pp. 61-62] Between 1440 and 1443 there was a fighting between the castle of Bratislava, supporting king Ladislaus III of Poland, and the actual town of Bratislava below the castle hill, supporting (and owned by) queen Elisabeth. In 1442 Ladislaus settles at the castle and temporarily conquers the town, but is defeated by the Austrian emperor Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor supporting Elisabeth. Finally, in 1443 Elisabeth gets the town back, but the castle remains in Ladislaus' hands till his death in 1444.From 1465 until 1490 Bratislava was the seat of the first university in present-day Slovakia, the Universitas Istropolitana (often wrongly called Academia Istropolitana). [cite web | publisher = City of Bratislava | url = http://www.bratislava.sk/en/vismo5/dokumenty2.asp?u=700000&id_org=700000&id=2009414& | title = Academia Istropolitana | date = February 14, 2005 | accessmonthday = April 25 | accessyear = 2007] From 1490 to 1526 Bratislava is a place of diplomatic negotiations under the Jagiellonian kings. In 1490 Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor drives the Hungarians from Austria (summer 1490) and even occupies Hungarian frontier territories, but he is compelled by want of money to retreat and signs the Treaty of Pressburg (also called the (2nd) Peace of Pressburg) with the Hungarian King Ladislaus II on 7 November 1491. Under this treaty it is agreed that Hungary renounces to Lower Austria and Maximilian should succeed to the crown in case Ladislaus left no legitimate male issue.

After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, where the Kingdom of Hungary was defeated by the expanding Ottoman Empire, the Turks besiege Bratislava in 1529, but fail to conquer it. Two years later churches and hospitals outside the town wall are deliberately destroyed so that the Turks are not able to see from there to the town behind the town wall. In the beginning of 1532 thousands of soldiers are sent to Bratislava as a protection against the Turks planning to attack Vienna. Bratislava is temporarily turned to a military camp. The Turks, seeing the military force in Bratislava, decide to attack Vienna from the south.

1536–1784

As a consequence of Ottoman advances through Hungarian territory and the capture of Buda, the city was designated as the capital of Royal Hungary in 1536. The Kingdom of Hungary was part of the Habsburg (i. e. Austrian) Monarchy from 1526 to 1918. It was also made a meeting place of the Hungarian Diet from 1542 to 1848 (with interruptions) and the coronation town for Hungarian kings and queens from 1536 to 1830 (in the St. Martin's Cathedral). The first coronation is that of King Maximilian of Habsburg, the last one the coronation of Ferdinand V. Altogether, 11 kings and 8 queens were crowned in the town. [Lacika, "Bratislava", p. 62 (Slovak)] However, in the 17th century, the town is touched by anti-Habsburg uprisings. In addition, there are fighting with the Turks, floods, plagues and other disasters. The Evangelic Lutheran Lyceum (Evanjelické lýceum), a kind of Protestant grammar school and in the 19th century also a kind of university, is founded in 1607 (see 1803).

Anti-Habsburg uprisings

In 1606 (within the Stephen Bocskay Uprising) Bocskay troops occupy the surroundings of Bratislava. Bethlen conquers Bratislava in 1619, as a part of the Gabriel Bethlen uprising. He is defeated by imperial troops in 1621 and then besieges the town from 1621 to 1622. The (3rd) Peace of Pressburg between Gabriel Bethlen and the emperor Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor is signed in 1626, which puts an end to the Bethlen anti-Habsburg uprising. From 1671 to 1677 Bratislava is seat of extraordinary courts against the Protestants and participants of anti-Habsburg uprisings; "e.g." a trial against the participants of the Wesselényi conspiracy takes place in 1671. Within the Imre Thököly Uprising from 1682 to 1683 Bratislava is the only town in present day Slovakia that refuses to capitulate to Thököly’s troops. Finally, the town, but not the castle capitulates in July 1683 and is only reconquered by imperial troops after the Turks have been defeated near Vienna (which happened in September 1683). The last of these uprisings that touched the town was in 1704 (within the Rákóczi Uprising), when Prince Eugene of Savoy manages to protect Bratislava from Rákóczi's troops, but the surroundings of the town are totally destroyed.

Since the 18th century the city is important centre of the Slovak national and cultural movement (Slovak National Revival). The Great Plague Epidemic kills 3800 people in years 1710 and 1711. Later Holy Trinity column is erected in thanksgiving to God for its ending. In the 18th century, many new baroque buildings are erected, the economy flourishes (1st manufacture in 1728), first parks arise (today's Hviezdoslavovo námestie), the town wall is demolished in 1775 to enable further expansion, and the first city theatre was opened in 1776 and Bratislava becomes the largest and most important town on the territory of present day Slovakia and Hungary. [Lacika, "Bratislava", pp. 34-36 (Slovak)]

The first journal in Hungary, "Mercurius Veridicus ex Hungaria", is published here in 1705 and the first regular newspaper in Hungary (written in Latin), "Nova Posoniensia", is issued in 1721–1722.
Pragmatic Sanction law was acknowledged in 1713 which decided the Habsburg monarch's unity and the woman can inhereit the Hungarian throne. Maria Theresa of Austria is crowned Queen Regnant of Hungary at St. Martin's Cathedral on 25 June 1741.Lacika, p. 62] The 6-year old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart gives a concert in the Palffy palace in 1762. In 1764 the first German newspaper in Hungary, the "Pressburger Zeitung", begins publication and remains until 1929 and sixteen years later, the first newspaper in Hungarian, "Magyar hírmondó", is published here.

In 1782: The number of inhabitants reaches 33,000 (out of which 29,223 are in the part of the town below the castle that has the free royal town status) thus making Bratislava the biggest town in Hungary. The number of inhabitants has increased by 200% between 1720 and 1780. In 1783, the first newspaper in Slovak, "Presspurske Nowiny" (which remains in circulation until 1787) is published and the first novel in Slovak, "Rene mladenca prihody a skusenosti" (The adventures and experiences of the youth Rene) by Jozef Ignác Bajza, is published. However, in 1783, under the reign of Joseph II, the crown jewels are taken to Vienna and many central offices moved to Buda, which are followed by a big part of nobility. [cite web | publisher = City of Bratislava | url = http://www.visit.bratislava.sk/en/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=700014&id=1010&p1=1574 | title = History - Maria Theresa’s City | year = 2005 |accessmonthday = May 15 | accessyear = 2007] [Kováč et al., "Kronika Slovenska 1", p. 349] The number of inhabitants decreases and the economic situation of the town deteriorates until 1811. From now on Bratislava is only the coronation town and the seat of the Hungarian diet. In 1775 the crowning hill was built by Maria Theresa from soil of Hungary's 64 counties. The new monarch had to ride to the crowning hill and swish their blade towards the four cardinal points. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 70 (Hungarian)]

1784–1900

From 1784 to 1800 the General Seminary (a school for Catholic clergy) works in the Pozsony Castle. One of the notable students is Anton Bernolák, who would publish in 1787 the first Slovak language standard. Another educating institution was the Royal Academy, moved also in 1787 to the city from Trnava. In 1803, a separate "Department of Czechoslovak Speech and Literature" is created (from the Institute of Czechoslovak Speech and Literature founded in 1801) at the Lutheran Lyceum.

Bratislava was also playing a role in the early 19th century. In 1805 the fourth and best-known Treaty of Pressburg is signed by Austria and France after Napoleon I's victory in the Battle of Austerlitz. Four years later Napoleon's army besieges and bombards the city and Napoleon I visits the city. The Dévény Castle is turned into a ruin by the French troops in 1809 and the Pozsony Castle is inadvertently destroyed by fire in 1811 (and will remain in ruins until the 1950s).

In 1820 the 9-year-old Franz Liszt plays in De Pauli's Palace. Five years later, István Széchenyi offers his yearly income to establish the Hungarian National Learned Society (now Hungarian Academy of Sciences) in Bratislava. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 14 (Hungarian)] In 1829 the "Czech-Slav Society" (also called the Society for the Czechoslovak language and literature) is created by students of the Lutheran Lyceum, which will become an important entity in the Slovak national movement. Ľudovít Štúr also started to study at the Lyceum and will spend 20 years at the lyceum together. In 1843 he codified the present-day Slovak language standard. The industrialisation of the town begins with regular steamship transport on the Danube in 1830. Ten years later the first (horse-)railway line in Hungary and present-day Slovakia is built from Bratislava to the town of Svätý Jur, north of Bratislava. [Kováč et al., "Kronika Slovenska 1", p. 426 (Slovak)] Later, it will extend to Trnava and Sereď (1846). [Kováč et al., "Kronika Slovenska 1", p. 440 (Slovak)]

* 1835:The first champagne was made by Esch and Co in Pozsony in Hungary
*1837 (July 1): Mágnás Kör was founded by István Széchenyi in the city. The company is also called Casino Pozsonyi.This company's purpose is that Hungarian patriots can meet in a club regularly and enlarge the presence of Hungarian culture in the city.A lots of establishment's plants were produced in the Pozsonyi Casino. Many economical institute's foundation started from here, like a penny bank called "Pozsonyi Első Takarékpénztár", the first horse tramway of Hungary ("in those days") or Malomvölgyi ("Slov:Mlynska dolina") company. [cite web | publisher = Pozsonyi Casino | url = http://www.pozsonyicasino.szm.sk| title = Pozsonyi Casino - history | date = 2008 | accessdate = 5 March | accessyear = 2008 | language = Hungarian, German, Slovak]
* 1843: Sándor Petőfi lives in the city. He works as part of the Diet's administrative staff. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 14 (Hungarian)]
* 1843-1844:Hungarian language is proclaimed the official language in legislation, public administration and teaching by the Diet. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 14 (Hungarian)]
* 1847-1848: Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria opens the Diet in the Primate's Palace's mirror room, addressing the MPs in Hungarian. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 15 (Hungarian)]
* 1848 (March 16): Lajos Batthyány and Lajos Kossuth propose political reforms to the emperor. Lajos Kossuth proclaims "Hungary reborn" from the hotel Zöldfa (English: "Greenwood")'s balcony next day. Ferdinand I of Austria appoints Lajos Batthyány to form a new Hungarian government. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 15 (Hungarian)]
* 1848 (March 18): The Diet declares the new Hungarian constitution and abolishes serfdom. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 15 (Hungarian)]
*1848: (April 11): Ferdinand I of Austria signs (in the Primate palace's mirror room) the so-called March Laws, by which serfdom is partly abolished in Hungary. Than he dissolves the Diet. That is the last Hungarian Diet convened in Bratislava, after its transfer to Budapest. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 15 (Hungarian)]
* 1848–1849: During the 1848 Revolution the Hungarian Nation Guard was arranged by Henrik Justi in the city. This army defeats Jozef Miloslav Hurban's Slovak volunteers near Senec. On 7 October 1848 Josip Jelačić tries to cross the Danube after his army lost the Battle of Pákozd, but Bratislava's citizens destroy the pontoon bridge. Lajos Kossuth appoints Artúr Görgey the commander-in-chief of the Hungarian army in Bratislava. But the Hungarian army loses the Battle of Schwechat and Prince of Windischgraetz's Austrian army enters the city without fighting on 18 December, 1848. After the 1848 Revolution is defeated, the tribunal organized by Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau sentences 149 people to prison and 14 people to death. The 13 Martyrs of Arad's sentences to death are also signed by Haynau there. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 15 (Hungarian)]
* 1848: Railway connection to Vienna.
* 1850: Railway connection to Budapest.
* Late 19th century: The city was prosperitied by mayor Henrik Justi and banker Theodor Edl. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, they were political opponents. Strong modernisation (sewerage and gas-works 1856, telephone and electrical lighting system 1884, water supply system , 1st permanent bridge over the Danube 1891 (Starý most, see also 1439), trams 1895, public electricity 1902) and industrialisation (chemical factory known today as Istrochem) 1873, oil refinery known today as Slovnaft a.s.) 1895. As a result, during the last decades of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, Bratislava is the 2nd most industrialized town of the Kingdom of Hungary.
* 1866: The Battle of Lamač becomes the last battle of the Austro-Prussian War. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 16 (Hungarian)]
* 1867: After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Henrik Justi, the former leader of the 1848 Hungarian Nation Guard in the city, becomes the mayor. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 70 (Hungarian)]
* 1870 (May 4): The crowning hill is rebuilt by the city council's order. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 71 (Hungarian)]
* 1886 (Sept 22): City theater "(today's Slovak National Theatre)" was opened. Kálmán Tisza Hungarian Prime Minister and his all government, Mór Jókai took part on this ceremony with the opera Bánk bán. Gala performance was conducted by Ferenc Erkel. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 76 (Hungarian)]
* 1897 (May 15): Statue of Maria Tereza, made by János Fadrusz, is erected on the crowning hill square. Franz Joseph I of Austria and his family take part on the dedication's ceremony. [Erzsébet Varga, "Pozsony", p. 71 (Hungarian)]

20th century

In 1905 Philipp Lenard Hungarian-German physicist - came from Pozsony - winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties [cite web | publisher =Oszk|url=http://mek.oszk.hu/02000/02056/html/lenard/lenard.htm|title =Más fizikai díjazottak|date = no date |accessmonthday = September 22 | accessyear = 2008] , and also in this year Ján Bahýľ, a Slovak inventor, flew his petrol-engine helicopter in Pozsony reaching a height of 4 metres for more than 1500 m. [cite web | publisher = Helicopter History Site | url = http://www.helis.com/pioneers/1900.php | title = Pioneers - 1905, May 5 : Jan Bahyl | date = no date |accessmonthday = May 3 | accessyear = 2007] Czecho-Slovakia has been declared on October 28 in 1918 in Prague, the leaders of Pozsony (where the majority of the population are Germans or Hungarians, see below) want to prevent Pozsony from becoming part of Czecho-Slovakia and declare the town a free town and rename it "Wilsonovo mesto" (Wilson City) after US-president Woodrow Wilson. However, the city became part of Czechoslovakia after it was taken by the Czechoslovak Legions on January 1, 1919 (only the left river bank; the right river bank, not belonging to Bratislava yet, was occupied only on August 14 while Budapest just was occupied by the Romanian army). It has been chosen as seat of Slovak political organs over Túrócszentmárton and Nyitra. Earlier the (Hungarian) Elisabeth University worked here- it had been a predecessor of the Slovak Comenius University after the Czechoslovakian state requistioned it on 6th January. The whole teaching staff were arrested on 28th January, because they rejected the invitation in the new Czechoslovakian government's joining up celebration. The (Slovakian) Comenius University (Univerzita Komenského) is founded then. The government moved to the city on 4–5 February. On 12 February German and Hungarian people demonstrated against of the Czechoslovak occupation on the Vásár square (now SNP Square). The shooting by the Czechoslovak troops left 9 people dead and 23 wounded. [Marcel Jankovics, "Húsz esztendő Pozsonyban", p. 65-67 (Hungarian)] On March 27, the town's official new name becomes "Bratislava" - instead of "Prešporok" (Slovak) / "Pressburg" (German) / "Pozsony" (Hungarian).On 4th May Milan Rastislav Štefánik, French-Slovak general died in an airplane crash near Bratislava. [cite web | publisher = |url=http://www.tfsimon.com/stefanik-note.htm| title = tfsimon.com - Milan Rastislav Štefánik | date = no date | accessdate = 5 March | accessyear = 2008 ] On 26-27 October in 1921 the statue of Maria Theresa was destroyed by Slovakian nationalists and the members of the Sokol Movement.Between 1928-1930 Hotel Carlton was built instead of hotel Zöldfa at the Séta square (now Hviezdoslavovo square). Before Lajos Kossuth Franz Joseph I. Alfred Nobel Albert Einstein stayed at the hotel Zöldfa too. In the time of census in 1930 the Hungarian residents' rate decreased to under 20% and as a result of it the Hungarian name-plates were removed. Between 1938 (October) - 1939 (March): Seat of the government of the autonomous Slovakia within Czecho-Slovakia (see "e.g." Jozef Tiso). Between 1938 (November) - 1945 The future city parts Petržalka and Devín and the surroundings of Devín are occupied by Nazi Germany. After the break-up of Czechoslovakia, Bratislava became the capital of the First Slovak Republic in 1939. Until 1945 most of the approximately city's 15,000 Jews were expelled, [Lacika, "Bratislava", p. 43. Kováč et al., "Bratislava 1939–1945, pp. 174–177] and sent into concentration camps. It was bombarded by the Allies, occupied by German troops in 1944, eventually being conquered by the Soviet Red Army on 4 April 1945 and became part of Czechoslovakia again. After the war, most of the Germans were expelled (although some Germans had already been evacuated by German authorities). [Kováč et al., "Kronika Slovenska 2", pp. 307–308] cite journal | author= Peter Salner | title = Ethnic polarisation in an ethnically homogeneous town| journal= Czech Sociological Review | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 235–246 | year=2001 | url = http://sreview.soc.cas.cz/upl/archiv/files/171_235SALNE.pdf | format=PDF] On 5th May In 1945 Slovakian soldiers broke into the flats of Hungarians living in Bratislava. Packaging was allowed in a half past hour. 90% of Hungarian population was transferred to Petržalka having about 20000 people in detention camps between inhuman circumstances.90 teenage soldiers -came from Csík county- who did not take part in military actions were murdered by Czechoslovakian soldiers with shot in the backs of the neck on the way home in the weeks after the World War II in Petržalka. [cite web |publisher= |url=http://politika.transindex.ro/?cikk=6092|title=Transindex |date=no date |accessdate=23 March |accessyear=2008 |language=Hungarian] [ [http://www.dunabogdany.hu/hirado/2007aprilis/emlekezzunk.html Dunabogdány honlapja ] ]
The city also expanded to the neighbouring villages of: Devín, Dúbravka, Lamač, Petržalka, Prievoz (now part of Ružinov), Rača, and Vajnory in 1946, in addition to Karlova Ves, already annexed in 1944. The so-called Bratislava bridgehead on the right bank of the Danube was enlarged in 1947 with the hitherto Hungarian villages of Jarovce, Rusovce and Čunovo according to the Paris Peace Conference, which transferred these villages to Czechoslovakia, on the grounds that "Bratislava needs space for enlargement". After the Communists seized power in February 1948, the city became part of the Eastern Bloc. Several present-day cultural institutions were established (first films made in the town in 1948; Slovak Philharmonic Orchestra founded in 1949; Slovak National Gallery in 1951, Slovak Academy of Sciences in 1953, Bratislava Gallery in 1959, Slovak Television in 1956), several factories and landmarks were built, sometimes at the expense of the historical cityscape. (Slavín in 1960, Kamzík TV Tower in the 1970s, reconstruction of the Bratislava Castle in 1953–62 and Nový Most, the second bridge over the Danube, in 1972; from factories "Bratislavské automobilové závody" and Slovnaft). The city was also affected by the unsuccessful Czechoslovak attempt to liberalize the Communist regime in 1968. Shortly after that, the city became capital of the Slovak Socialist Republic, a part of federalized Czechoslovakia, after the signing of the Law of Federation at the Bratislava Castle in 1968. Since 1960s, construction of the huge prefab panel buildings had been ongoing. The city also expanded once more in 1972, annexing villages of Jarovce, Rusovce, Čunovo, Devínska Nová Ves, Záhorská Bystrica, Vrakuňa and Podunajské Biskupice. The third bridge over the Danube, called Prístavný most (Harbour Bridge) was built in 1985. The fall of the Communism was anticipated by the candle demonstration in 1988, which had been violently scattered by the police. In November 1989 the city became one of the centres of the Velvet Revolution; Alexander Dubček held his first speech in the city since 1970 and one day before the demonstrations in Prague, Slovak students rally against the Communist regime on 16 November 1989; further demonstrations would follow. The first non-Communist political party, "Public Against Violence" (Verejnosť proti násiliu, VPN) is created on November 21.

In 1991 the factory of the automaker Volkswagen was founded in Bratislava (until 1994 as a joint venture with the "Bratislavské automobilové závody"); the fourth bridge over the Danube, Most Lafranconi, was built. On 17 July 1992 the Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Nation is adopted by the Slovak National Council (called National Council of the Slovak Republic since 1994). Six days later the prime ministers of the two constituent republics of Czechoslovakia agree to split the country into two independent states; the Constitution of Slovakia is adopted September 1 and signed at the Bratislava Castle September 3. After the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1992 the city is declared the capital of independent Slovakia.

21st century

* 2003: The millionth car is produced at Volkswagen Bratislava. The factory produces the models Touareg, Polo, Seat Ibiza, Golf, Bora 4Motion and their sub-models in 2003.
* 2003: Construction starts on the fifth bridge over the Danube, the Apollo bridge (Most Apollo): the bridge was opened for traffic on September 3, 2005.
* 2005: George W. Bush and Vladimir Putin meet at Slovakia Summit 2005.

See also: Peace of Pressburg

Demographic evolution

The ethnic makeup of the town's population during the last 2 centuries has been as follows:: 1850: Germans (75%), Slovaks (18%), Hungarians (7.5%) - Note: all population data before 1869 are not exact -: 1880: Germans (68%), Slovaks (8%), Hungarians (8%): 1910: Germans (41.92%), Slovaks (14.92%), Hungarians (40.53%), of total population of 78,223 [http://www.talmamedia.com/php/district/district.php?county=Pozsony] Note: the period after 1848 was a period of strong magyarisation in the Kingdom of Hungary; immigration of Hungarians and magyarisation in Bratislava. Also note that in the same time, the municipal area around the city had a population composed of 63.29% Slovaks, 17.39% Germans, and 13.59% Hungarians, of 36,190 inhabitants total [http://www.talmamedia.com/php/district/district.php?county=Pozsony] The whole county to which the city belonged had a population of 389,750, including 166,017 Slovaks, 163,367 Hungarians, and 53,822 Germans. [http://www.talmamedia.com/php/district/district.php?county=Pozsony] : 1919 (August): Germans (36%), Slovaks (33%), Hungarians (29%), other (1.7%): 1930: Slovaks (33%), Germans (25%), Czechs (23%), Hungarians (16%), Jews (3.83%) Note: emigration of Hungarians and opportunist registering as Czechs or Slovaks; immigration of Czech civil servants and teachers; the Germans remained the biggest group in the part of the city known as Old Town; religious Jews made up 12%, so that most national Jews might have registered themselves as Slovaks or Germans: 1940: Slovaks (49%), Germans (20%), Hungarians (9.53%), Jews (8.78%): 1961: Slovaks (95.15%), Czechs (4.61%), Hungarians (3.44%), Germans (0.52%), Jews (0%) Note: Germans were evacuated when the Red Army was approaching the town in 1945, Jews were eliminated during WWII or they moved thereafter: 1970: Slovaks (92%), Czechs (4.6%), Hungarians (3.4%), Germans (0.5%):1991: Slovaks (93.39%), Czechs (2.47%), Hungarians (4.6%), Germans (0.29%): 2001: Slovaks (91.39%), Czechs and Moravians (2%), Hungarians (3.84%), Germans (0.28%)

City name history

Etymology

The first written reference (as "Brezalauspurc", another variant is "Preslavaspurc") comes from the Salzburg Annals, in relation to the battles between the Bavarians and the Hungarians, fought outside the walls of Bratislava Castle in 907. [Janota, "Bratislavské rarity", p. 152; cite web | publisher = City of Bratislava | url = http://www.visit.bratislava.sk/en/vismo/dokumenty2.asp?id_org=700014&id=1030&p1=1596 | title = Historical calendar | year = 2005 | accessdaymonth = 3 August | accessyear = 2007] The castle was probably named after Predslav, third son of King Svätopluk I; [Lacika, "Bratislava", p. 6; Janota, "Bratislavské rarity", p. 154] however, "Brezalauspurc" literally means "Braslav's Castle" and therefore the town was probably named after Braslav, the last military commander of Pannonia, a province in East Francia.cite book | last = Kristó | first = Gyula (editor) | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9-14. század) "(Encyclopedia of the Early Hungarian History - 9-14th centuries)"| publisher = Akadémiai Kiadó | year = 1994 | location = Budapest | pages = 128, 553| url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 963 05 6722 9] This ancient name reappears under the variant "Braslava" or "Preslava" on coins minted by King Stephen I of Hungary and dated around 1000cite web | publisher = "The Slovak Spectator" | url = http://www.spectacularslovakia.sk/ss2001/bratislava_history.html | title = Historical melting pot of cultures | year = 2001 | accessmonthday = May 1 | accessyear = 2007 | author = Zuzana Habšudová | year = 2001] , but the "RESLAVVA CIV" inscription of the obviously conterfeit coins (found only in Sweden) cannot prove the existence of such a name of the town. [cite book | last = Györffy | first = György | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = István király és műve "(King Stephen and his Work)"| publisher = Balassi Kiadó | date = 2000 | location = Budapest | page = 340| url = | doi = | id = | isbn = ] Later in the Middle Ages, it found its final form in the German name "Pressburg" and the Slovak name "Prešporok" derived from it.cite web | publisher = "The Slovak Spectator" | url = http://www.spectacularslovakia.sk/ss2001/bratislava_history.html | title = Historical melting pot of cultures | year = 2001 | accessmonthday = May 1 | accessyear = 2007 | author = Zuzana Habšudová | year = 2001] "Pressburg" was used to refer to the city by most English-speaking writers until 1919, [cite web | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition | url = http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tim_Starling/ScanSet_TIFF_demo&vol=22&page=ED2A313 | title = Pressburg | year = 1911 | accessmonthday = June 13 | accessyear = 2007] and it is occasionally so used even today. The Hungarians used "Pozsony" (spelled "Posony" before the 19th century) and it is still in use in Hungarian. The Latin name "Posonium" is derived from the Hungarian.Janota, "Bratislavské rarity", p. 155] Its Hungarian and Latin denominations might have come from the Hungarian name "Poson".cite book | page = 553] In addition to these names, Renaissance documents called the city "Istropolis", meaning "Danube City" in Ancient Greek (for example, see Universitas Istropolitana).

The current name, "Bratislava", has its beginnings in 1837, when Slavist scholar Pavel Jozef Šafárik invented a variant of it ("Břetislaw")Lacika, "Bratislava", p. 6] from old names, believing that they were derived from that of Bohemian ruler Bretislav I. The name was used for the first time by members of the Slovak movement in 1844 as "Bratislav". After World War I, it was proposed to rename the city "Wilson City" ("Wilsonovo mesto") after American president Woodrow Wilson. The proposal was rejected, and the official name of the city was changed to "Bratislava" in March 1919, after the city became part of Czechoslovakia.

Older city name forms

* 805 or 807 (recorded only in the 16th century): Wratisslaburgium (Latin "Pisonium" or "Posonium")
* late 9th centuryFact|date=August 2008: Braslava (?)(assumed medieval Slavic form, probably after a Slav prince Braslav)
* around 850:Fact|date=August 2008 Istropolis (Greek, stems from the christianisation period, has been later used by king Matthias Corvinus)
* 907: Brezalauspurc(h) - the first recorded name by nearly contemporary source and found in the Salzburg Annals; this name literally means "Braslav's Castle", probably after Braslav of Pannonia who was a count appointed by King Arnulf of East Franciacite book | last = Kristó | first = Gyula (editor)| authorlink = | coauthors = | title = A Kárpát-medence és a magyarság régmultja (1301-ig) | publisher = Szegedi Középkorász Műhely | date = 1993 | location = Szeged | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 963 04 2914 4] ; according to some sources the name originated from the name "Braslava" mentioned above, while newer sources claim that it derived from the name Predslav, the alleged third son of SvätoplukFact|date=August 2008 [See also after 1001; note that "P" and "B" are very often interchanged in Austrian and Bavarian local and family names as Bavarian accent does not differentiate between them.Fact|date=August 2008]
* after 1001 (debated): (p)RESLAVVA CIV(itas)" or "(b)RESLAVVA CIV(itas)" on conterfeit coins with confused inscriptions found only in Sweden [cite book | last = Györffy | first = György | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = István király és műve "(King Stephen and his Work)"| publisher = Balassi Kiadó | date = 2000 | location = Budapest | page = 340| url = | doi = | id = | isbn = ]
* 1002: PosonFact|date=August 2008
* 1042: BrezesburgFact|date=August 2008
* 1045: BosenburgFact|date=August 2008
* 1048: BrecesburgFact|date=August 2008
* 1052: Poson, Brezisburg, Bresburc, PreslawaspurchFact|date=August 2008
* 1098: PrespurchFact|date=August 2008
* 1107: BosanFact|date=August 2008
* 1108: Preburch, Bosania, Prespurch, Bresbruch, Prespuerch, Brespurg, Posonia, PossenFact|date=August 2008
* 1109: Bosan, PresburchFact|date=August 2008
* 1142: Poson
* 1143: Bosonium
* 1146: Bosan
* 1147: Prespurch
* 1151 and 1163/1164: Posonium (Latin, origin like Poson above)
* 1172 and 1194: Poson
* 1189: Bosonium, Brezburc, Bosonium quod Prespurc teutonice nuncupatur, Brisburc, PosoniumFact|date=August 2008
* 1197: Posony (Hungarian form)Fact|date=August 2008
* 1217: Posonia

"Note:The numerous names after 1217 are not listed"

Most recent historical city name alternatives

Following are Bratislava's names used mostly before 1919:
* "Preßburg" or "Pressburg" - German (both versions still used in German)
* "Prešporok" - old Slovak name; stems from German (one of the many variants was "Pressporek" in 1773)
* "Prešpurk" - Czech; stems from German
* "Pressburg(h)" - English; stems from German
* "Pressbourg", later "Presbourg"; stems from German - French
* "Pozsony" - Hungarian (still used in Hungarian)
* "Posonium" - Latin
* "Požun" - Croatian, Serbian
* "Pozhoma" - Romany
* "Istropolis" - Greek meaning "the Danube City"
* "Wilsonovo mesto" ("Wilson City") - proposed name in late 1918/early 1919 (after U.S. President Woodrow Wilson)

Notable historical figures

This is a comprehensive list of historical figures who were born and/or lived in or visited Bratislava.

*Andrew III (see above 1291)
*Ján Bahýľ (1866–1916) - Slovak inventor, mainly focusing on flying machines
*Jozef Ignác Bajza (1755–1836) - see above, buried in the St. Martin's Cathedral in Pressburg
*Matej Bel (1674–1749) - European scientist, teacher at the Evangelic Lutheran Lyceum (see above) for 35 years
*Ján Beloslav Bella (1843–1936) - author of the first Slovak opera
*Anton Bernolák (1762–1813) - author of the first Slovak language standard (see above)
*Napoleon Bonaparte (see above 1805, 1809, 1811)
*Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490) - king of Hungary, founded the Universitas Istropolitana, conferred many privileges to Pressburg
*Georg Rafael Donner (1693–1741) - European sculptor, spent 11 years in Pressburg, author of the central sculpture in the St. Martin's Cathedral)
*Alexander Dubček (1921–1992) - Slovak politician and statesman, who lived in Bratislava
*Ernő Dohnányi (1877-1960) - also known as Ernst von Dohnányi, Hungarian composer, pianist, conductor, and educator born in Pressburg
*János Fadrusz (in Slovak: Ján Fadrusz) (1858–1903) - sculptor born in Pressburg; he erected the Maria Theresa statue located on the former Coronation Hill in 1897, which was later destroyed in 1921
*Ferdinand V (see above 1848)
*Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) - gave many performances in Pressburg
*Johann Nepomuk Hummel (1778–1837) - a composer and virtuoso pianist born in Pressburg
*Gustáv Husák (1913–1991) - Slovak politician and the last president of Czechoslovakia born in Pressburg
*Janko Jesenský (1874–1945) - Slovak poet, writer and translator, who lived in Bratislava since 1929 and died there
*Karl Jetting (1730–1790) - the "Robinson of Pressburg", born in Pressburg, was shipwrecked many times and was living on an isolated island
*Ján Vlk Kempelen (1734–1804) - inventor, spent most of his life in Bratislava
*Eduard Nepomuk Kozics (1829–1874) - important photographer
*Johann Sigismund Kusser (1660–1727) - founder of the Hamburg Opera, composer, born in Pressburg
*Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary of Jagiellon (1456–1516) - King of Bohemia and Hungary, spent most of his life in Pressburg
*Philipp Lenard (1862–1949) - physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905, born and raised in Pressburg
*Imi Lichtenfeld (1910-1998) - founder of the Israeli martial art Krav Maga, grew up in Pressburg / Bratislava
*Franz Liszt (1811–1886) - Hungarian composer, who played many concerts in Pressburg and was fond of the town
*Sigismund of Luxemburg (1368–1437) - Holy Roman Emperor, gave many important privileges to the town and had the Pressburg castle reconstructed
*Rodion Malinovsky (1898–1967) - Soviet leader of the troops that "liberated" Bratislava in April 1944, see above
*Franz Anton Maulbertsch (1724–1796) - Austrian painter working in Pressburg
*Franz Xaver Messerschmidt (1736–1783) - sculptor, who lived and died in Pressburg
*Samuel Mikoviny (1700–1750) - scientist and technician, founder of scientific cartography in Hungary, spent 10 years in Pressburg
*Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) - gave his only concert in Hungary in Pressburg
*Jozef Murgaš (1864–1929) - Slovak inventor, architect, botanist, painter, patriot, and one of the founders of radiotelegraphy, studied in Presssburg
*Oskar Nedbal (1874–1930) - composer and conductor, director of the Slovak National Theatre; (1923–1930) - conductor of the Bratislava Symphony Orchestra
*Adam Fridrich Oeser (1717–1799) - painter and sculptor, studied in Pressburg
*Ottakar II (see above 1271)
*Paracelsus (1493–1541) - chemist, scientist and doctor, visited Pressburg in 1537)
*Péter Pázmány/Peter Pazmáň (1570–1637) - archbishop of Esztergom, founded the Univesity of Nagyszombat, built Jesuit colleges and schools in Pressburg
*Sándor Petőfi (1823–1849) - important Hungarian poet, who often visited Pressburg
*Alajos Rigele (1879–1940) - sculptor, born in Presssburg and author of many sculptures in Pressburg
*Johann Andreas Segner (1704–1777) - inventor (Segner-wheel), doctor and professor, who was born and studied in Pressburg
*Franz Schmidt (1874–1939) - composer and teacher, born in Pressburg
*Ľudovít Štúr (1815–1856) - one of the most famous figures in modern Slovak history, leader of the Slovak national movement in the 19th century, creator of the present-day Slovak language standard (see above 1843), spent 20 years at the Evangelic Lutheran Lyceum (first as a student, then as a professor), deputy of the Hungarian diet in Pressburg, editor of the Slovak National Newspaper ("Slovenskje národnje novini")
*Maria Theresa of Austria (1717–1780) - Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, spent much of her time in the Pressburg Castle, had the Castle walls demolished and the Castle restored (see above)
*Milan Rastislav Štefánik (1880–1919) - one of the most important figures in modern Slovak history, astronomer, Slovak general of the French army, one of the creators of Czechoslovakia, studied and died in Pressburg "( Bratislava )", the official name of the Bratislava Airport is "Milan Rastislav Štefánik Airport"
*Július Satinský (1941–2002) - famous Slovak and Czechoslovak actor, spent his whole life in Bratislava
*Viktor Tilgner (1844–1896) - sculptor and professor in Vienna, born in Bratislava, many of his sculptures are in Pressburg (e.g., the Ganymedes Fountain and the Hummel Monument)
*Jozef Tiso (1887–1947) - president of the first Slovak Republic
*Rudolf Zahradník (born 1928) - important Czech chemist born in Bratislava
*Ludwig Schwarz (born 1940) - an Austrian bishop born in Bratislava

References

Citations

General references

*cite book |title = Dejiny Bratislavy (History of Bratislava)|year = 1979 |publisher = Obzor, n.p. |location = Bratislava |language = Slovak |edition = 2nd Edition |last = Horváth, V., Lehotská, D., Pleva, J. (eds.) et al.
*cite book
last = Kováč
first = Dušan "et al."
title = Kronika Slovenska 1 (Chronicle of Slovakia 1)
edition = 1st ed.
series = Chronicle of Slovakia
year = 1998
publisher = [http://www.fortunaprint.sk/index.php?catalogue=1&book=31 FortunaPrint]
location = Bratislava
language = Slovak
isbn = 80-71531-74-X
*cite book
last = Kováč
first = Dušan "et al."
title = Kronika Slovenska 2 (Chronicle of Slovakia 2)
edition = 1st ed.
series = Chronicle of Slovakia
year = 1999
publisher = [http://www.fortunaprint.sk/index.php?catalogue=1&book=31 Fortuna Print]
location = Bratislava, Slovakia
language = Slovak
isbn = 80-88980-08-9
*cite book
last = Lacika
first = Ján
title = Bratislava
edition = 1st ed.
series = Visiting Slovakia
year = 2000
publisher = [http://www.dajama.sk DAJAMA]
location = Bratislava
isbn = 80-88975-16-6
*cite book
last = Lacika
first = Ján
title = Bratislava
edition = 1st ed.
series = Poznávame Slovensko
year = 2000
publisher = [http://www.dajama.sk DAJAMA]
location = Bratislava, Slovakia
language = Slovak
isbn = 80-88975-14-X
*cite book
last = Mencl
first = Václav and Dobroslava
title = Bratislava: Stavební obraz města a hradu
year = 1936
publisher = Jan Štenc
location = Prague
language = Czech
*cite book
last = Ševčiková
first = Zuzana
title = Mestské opevnenie Bratislavy (City Fortifications of Bratislava)
year = 1974
publisher = Obzor, n.p.
location = Bratislava
language = Slovak, with summaries in English, German and Russian
*cite book
last = Špiesz
first = Anton
title = Bratislava v stredoveku (Bratislava in the Middle Ages)
edition = 1st ed.
year = 2001
publisher = [http://www.perfekt.sk/ Perfekt]
location = Bratislava
language = Slovak
isbn = 80-8046-145-7
*cite book
last = Janota
first = Igor
title = Bratislavské rarity
edition = 1st ed.
year = 2006
publisher = Vydavateľstvo PT
location = Bratislava
language = Slovak
isbn = 80-89218-19-9

*cite book
last = Jankovics
first = Marcell
title = Húsz esztendő Pozsonyban (Twenty years in Bratislava)
edition = 2nd ed.
year = 2000
publisher = Méry Ratio
location = Bratislava
language = Hungarian
isbn = 80-88837-34-0

*cite book
last = Varga
first = Erzsébet
title = Pozsony
edition = 1st ed.
year = 1995
publisher = Madách-Posonium
location = Bratislava
language = Hungarian
isbn = 80-7089-245-5