Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

This article is about the Egyptian organisation called the Muslim Brotherhood. For other organisations that use the same name, see Muslim Brotherhood.

The Muslim Brotherhood (Arabic: جماعة الاخوان المسلمين‎ al-ʾIḫwān/Ikhwan/el-ekhwan, IPA: [elʔexˈwæːn]) in Egypt is an Islamist religious, political, and social movement. Following the 2011 Revolution the group was legalized,^[1] and with an estimated 600,000 members or supporters^[2][3] it's considered the largest, best-organized political force in Egypt.^[2] Its credo is, "God is our objective; the Quran is our constitution, the Prophet is our leader; Jihad is our way; and death for the sake of God is the highest of our aspirations."^[4][5] Founded in Egypt by Hassan al-Banna in March 1928, the group spread to other Muslim countries but has its largest, or one of its largest, organizations in Egypt despite a succession of government crackdowns in 1948, 1954, 1965 after plots, or alleged plots, of assassination and overthrow were uncovered.^[6][7][1] In April 2011 it launched a civic political party called the Freedom and Justice Party to contest elections, described as having "the same mission and goals, but different roles" than the Brotherhood.^[8]

History

Main article: History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

Under the monarchy

Main article: History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1928-1938)

The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, an Egyptian schoolteacher, who preached implementing traditional Islamic Sharia law in all aspects of life, from everyday problems to the organization of the government.^[9] Inspired by Islamic reformers Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida, he believed that Islam had lost its social dominance to corrupt Western influences and British imperial rule.

Main article: History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1939-1954)

The organisation initially focused on educational and charitable work, but quickly grew to become a major political force as well. (Sources disagree as to whether the Brotherhood was hostile to independent working-class and popular organisations,^[9] or supported efforts to create trades unions and unemployment benefits.^[10]) It championed the cause of poor Muslims, and played a prominent role in the Egyptian nationalist movement, fighting the British, Egypt's occupier/dominator. It engaged in espionage and sabotage, as well as support for terrorist activities orchestrated by Haj Amin al-Husseini in British Mandate Palestine, and up to and during World War II some association with Britain's enemy, the German Nazis,^[11] dissemination of anti-Jewish, and anti-Western propaganda.^[12]

In November 1948, following several bombings and assassination attempts, the government arrest 32 leaders of the Brotherhood's "secret apparatus" and banned the Brotherhood.^[13] At this time the Brotherhood was estimated to have 2000 branches and 500,000 members or sympathizers.^[14] In succeeding months Egypt's prime minister was assassinated by Brotherhood member, and following that Al-Banna himself was assassinated in what is thought to be a cycle of retaliation.

In 1952 members of the Muslim Brotherhood are accused of taking part in an event that marked the end of Egypt's "liberal, progressive, cosmopolitan" era — an arson fire that destroyed some "750 buildings" in downtown Cairo — mainly night clubs, theatres, hotels, and restaurants frequented by British and other foreigners.^[15]

After the 1952 revolution

Main article: History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1954-present)

In 1952 the monarchy was overthrown by nationalist military officers. While the Brotherhood supported the coup it vigorously opposed the secularist constitution that the coup leaders were developing. In 1954 another assassination was attempted against Egypt's prime minister (Gamal Abdel Nasser), and blamed on the "secret apparatus" of the Brotherhood (this attempt was unsuccessful). The Brotherhood was again banned and this time thousands of its members were imprisoned, many of them held for years in prisons and concentration camps, and sometimes tortured.

One of them was the very influential theorist, Sayyid Qutb, who before being executed in 1966, issued a manifesto proclaiming that Muslim society had become jahiliyya (no longer Islamic) and that Islam must be restored by the overthrow of Muslim states by an Islamic vanguard. Qutb's ideology became very influential outside of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, but the Brotherhood's leadership distanced itself from Qutb, adhered to nonviolent reformist posture.

Imprisoned Brothers were gradually released after Anwar Sadat became president of Egypt in 1970, and were sometimes enlisted to help fight Sadat's leftist opposition. Brethern were allowed to publish the magazine Da'wa, though the organization remained illegal. During this time, more radical Qutb-inspired Islamist groups blossomed, and after he signing a peace agreement with Israel in 1979, became confirmed enemies of Sadat. Sadat was assassinated by a violent Islamist group Tanzim al-Jihad on October 6, 1981, shortly before he had Brotherhood leaders (and many other opposition leaders) arrested.

Mubarak era

Again with a new president, (Hosni Mubarak), Brotherhood leaders (Supreme Guide Umar al-Tilmisani and others) were released from prison. Mubarak cracked down hard against radical Islamists but offered a "olive branch" to the more moderate Brethren. The brethren reciprocated, going so far as to endorse Mubarak’s candidacy for president in 1988.^[16]

The Brotherhood dominated the professional and student associations of Egypt and was famous for its network of social services in neighborhoods and villages.^[16] However, the government did not approve of the Brotherhood's renewed influence (it was still technically illegal), and resorted to repressive measures starting in 1992.^[17]

In the 2000 parliamentary elections, the Muslim Brotherhood won 17 parliamentary seats.^[18] In 2005, it won 88 seats (20% of the total compared to 14 seats for the legally approved opposition parties) to form the largest opposition bloc, despite the arrest of hundreds of Brotherhood members. It lost almost all but one of these seats in the much-less-free 2010 election, which was marred by massive arrests of both Brethren and polling place observers.^[19] Under Egypt's emergency law Brethren could only stand as independents, but were easily identified since they campaigned under the slogan - 'Islam Is the Solution'.^[20]

During and after the 2005 election the Brethren launched what some have called a "charm offensive." Its leadership talked about its `responsibility to lead reform and change in Egypt.` It addressed the `Coptic issue`, insinuating that the Brethren would do away with Egypt's decade's old church building-permit system that Coptic Christians felt was discriminatory.^[21] Internationally the Brethren launched an English-language website and some of the Muslim Brotherhood's leaders participated in an Initiative to `Re-Introduc[e] the Brotherhood to the West`, "listing and addressing many `Western misconceptions about the Brotherhood.`"^[21]

Seeing this campaign as a direct threat to its position as an indispensible ally of the west against radical Islamism, the Egyptian government introduced an amendment to the constitution that removed the reference to Islam as `the religion of the state,` and would have allowed women and Christians to run for the presidency. Brotherhood MPs responded by walking out of parliament rather than voting on the bill.^[22] In addition, the movement has also reportedly played into the government's hands provoking non-Islamist Egyptians by staging a militia-style march by masked Brotherhood students at Cairo's Al Azhar University,^[23][24] complete with uniforms and martial arts drills, reminding many of the Brotherhood's era of 'secret cells'.^[25]

According to another observor: "after a number of conciliatory engagements and interactions with the West", the Brotherhood

retreated into its comfort zone of inflammatory rhetoric intended for local consumption: all suicide bombers are `martyrs`; `Israel` regularly became the Jews`; even its theological discourse became more confrontational and oriented to social conservatism.^[26]

Two years later the Egyptian government amended the constitution, skewing future representation against independent candidates for parliament, which are the only candidates the Brotherhood can field. The state delayed local council elections from 2006 to 2008, disqualifying most Muslim Brotherhood candidates. The Muslim Brotherhood boycotted the election. The government incarcerated thousands of rank-and-file Muslim Brotherhood members in a wave of arrests and military trials, the harshest such security clampdown on the Brotherhood "in decades." ^[23]

2011 revolution and after

The Brotherhood has been criticized (or noted) for being "on the sidelines" early in the January-February 2011 uprising that overthrew Hosni Mubarak, despite having much to gain from a freer political environment.^[27] (Reportedly the Brotherhood were told that the state security agency would arrest supreme guide Mohammed Badie if any Brethren participated.^[2]) However, the revolution legalized the Brotherhood^[1] and it has "emerged as the most powerful group" in Egypt.^[28]

In 30 April 2011 it launched a new party called the Freedom and Justice Party, which reportedly plans to "contest up to half the seats" in the Egyptian parliamentary election scheduled for September 2011.^[29] The party "rejects the candidacy of women or Copts for Egypt's presidency", but not for cabinet positions.^[30] Some splinter groups have appeared in the wake of the revolution.^[31] In September, the Muslim Brotherhood's Supreme Guide Mohammed Badie announced that the Muslim Brotherhood would not "field a candidate for presidency" as a member of the Brotherhood "at the helm of power” might give a foreign power (Israel or the US) a pretext to attack Egypt. The Brotherhood supported the constitutional referendum in March which was also supported by the Egyptian army and opposed by Egyptian liberals.^[32] Some Egyptians have speculated about deal between the military and the MB^[33], however the Muslim Brotherhood has denied reports of secret meetings with the ruling Supreme Council of the Armed Forces as "pure lies and imagination."^[28][34]

General leaders

Murshid ("supreme guide" or "General leaders" (G.L.)) of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (المرشد العام لجماعة الإخوان المسلمون) are/have been

• Founder & First G.leader : Hassan al Banna حسن البنا
• 2nd G.L : Hassan al-Hudaybi حسن الهضيبى
• 3rd G.L : Umar al-Tilmisani عمر التلمسانى
• 4th G.L : Muhammad Hamid Abu al-Nasr محمد حامد أبو النصر
• 5th G.L : Mustafa Mashhur مصطفى مشهور
• 6th G.L : Ma'mun al-Hudaybi مأمون الهضيبى
• 7th G.L : Mohamed al Mahdy Akef محمد المهدى عاكف
• 8th G.L & Current Leader: Mohammed Badie محمد بديع

Beliefs

The Brotherhood itself describes the "principles of the Muslim Brotherhood" as including firstly the introduction of the Islamic Shari`ah as "the basis controlling the affairs of state and society;" and secondly work to unify "Islamic countries and states, mainly among the Arab states, and liberating them from foreign imperialism". It denounces the "catchy and effective terms and phrases" like "fundamentalist" and "political Islam" which it claims are used by "Western Media" to pigeonhole the group, and points to its "15 Principles" for an Egyptian National Charter, including "freedom of personal conviction... opinion... forming political parties... public gatherings... free and fair elections..."^[35]

In October 2007, the Muslim Brotherhood issued a detailed political platform. Amongst other things it called for a board of Muslim clerics to oversee the government, and for limiting the office of the presidency to Muslim men. In the `Issues and Problems` chapter of the platform, it declared that a woman was not suited to be president because the post's religious and military duties `conflict with her nature, social and other humanitarian roles.` While underlining `equality between men and women in terms of their human dignity,` the document warned against `burdening women with duties against their nature or role in the family.`^[36]

Political viewpoints

The Brotherhood's self-description as moderate and rejecting violence as created disagreement among observers.^[37] A Western author, (Eric Thrager), interviewing 30 current and former members of the Brotherhood in 2011 and found that the Brethren he talked to emphasised "important exceptions" to the position of non-violence, namely conflicts in Afghanistan, Bosnia, Chechnya, Iraq, and Palestine.^[2] Thrager quotes the former Supreme Guide Mohammed Mahdi Akef as telling him

We believe that Zionism, the United States, and England are gangs that kill children and women and men and destroy houses and fields. .... Zionism is a gang, not a country. So we will resist them until they don't have a country.^[2]

Thrager and other have also noted the MB's use of the honorific "sheikh" to refer to Osama bin Laden. ^[2][38] While the Brotherhood differs with bin Laden and al-Qaeda, it has not condemned them for the 9-11 attacks because it does not believe they were responsible. A recent statement by the Brotherhood on the issue of violence and assassinations condemned the killing of "Sheikh Osama bin Laden" by the United States, saying: "The whole world, and especially the Muslims, have lived with a fierce media campaign to brand Islam as terrorism and describe the Muslims as violent by blaming the September 11th incident on al-Qaeda."^[39]

However, according to authors writing in the Council on Foreign Relations magazine Foreign Affairs: "At various times in its history, the group has used or supported violence and has been repeatedly banned in Egypt for attempting to overthrow Cairo's secular government. Since the 1970s, however, the Egyptian Brotherhood has disavowed violence and sought to participate in Egyptian politics."^[40] Jeremy Bowen, BBC Middle East editor, calls the Brotherhood "conservative and non-violent".^[41]

Political strategy

In his writing, Hassan Al-Banna outlined a strategy for achieving power of three stages:

• the initial propaganda stage (preparation),
• the organization stage (in which the people would be educated by the Muslim Brotherhood), and
• finally, the action stage (where power would be taken seized).^[42]

Organization

The Brotherhood applies a highly selective membership process which gives its "internal cohesiveness and ideological rigidity" and is unique among Egyptian political/social organizations in its "breath" and "depth" of networks.^[2] The long (typically at least four and a half years) and closely monitored membership process is thought to have prevented infiltration by state security during the presidencies of Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak.^[2] Its structure bears some similarity to a similar Islamist party, Jamaat-e-Islami, in having a hierarchical organization where many supporters do not reach the level of full members. Potential members are recruited by recruiters who do not at first identifying themselves as Brothers to prospective members.

Estimates of the Brotherhood's membership and supporters vary between 600,000 and 100,000. According to anthropologist Scott Atran, while the Brotherhood has 600,000 dues paying members in Egypt it can count on only 100,000 militants in a population of more than 80 million Egyptians.^[43]

How unified and powerful the Brotherhood is, is disputed. Former deputy chairman, Muhammad Habib has said, “there are fissures" in the Brotherhood, "and they may be to the very core. There is concern among the younger members that the leadership does not understand what’s going on around it."^[44] Another high ranking member, Abdel Moneim Aboul Fotouh, who was recently expelled from the Brotherhood, warned of the possibility of "an explosion.”^[45] Other observers (Eric Trager) have described the Brotherhood as "Egypt's most cohesive political movement, with an unparalleled ability to mobilize its followers ..."^[2]

Supporter levels

• muhib ("lover" or "follower"). The lowest level of the Brotherhood is the muhib. One is typically a muhib for six months, but the period can be as long as four years. A muhib is part of an usra ("family") which closely monitors the muhib's piety and ideological commitment, working to "improve the morals" of the muhib. An usras meets at least once a week and "spends much of its time discussing members' personal lives and activities." The usra usually has four or five members and is headed by a naqib ("captain").^[2]
• muayyad ("supporter"). A muhib graduates to muayyad after confirmation that the muhib prays regularly and possesses basic knowledge of major Islamic texts. This stage lasts from one to three years. A muayyad is a nonvoting member of the brotherhood. Their duties include carrying out tasks such as preaching, recruiting, teaching in mosques assigned to them by superiors. THey also follow a "rigorous curriculum of study", memorizing sections of the Quran and studying the teachings of Hasan Al Banna, the founder of the Brotherhood.^[2]
• muntasib ("affiliated"). This process lasts a year and is the first step toward full membership. As one Brother put it, a muntasib "is a member, but his name is written in pencil." A muntasib continues to study Islam (hadith and Tafsir) and now tithes the brotherhood, (typically giving 5% to 8% of their earning).^[2]
• muntazim ("organizer"). This stage typically lasts another two years. A muntazim must continue memorizing hadith and complete memorization of the Quran and "can assume a lower-level leadership role, such a forming an usra or heading a chapter" of usras.^[2]
• ach'amal ("working brother"). This final level is reached after the subject loyalty is "closely probed." An ach'amal can vote in all internal elections, participate in all of the Brotherhood's working bodies, and compete for higher office within the group's hierarchy."^[2]

Offices and organs

• Murshid ("Supreme Guide"). Head of the Brotherhood (and of its Maktab al-Irshad)^[2]
• Maktab al-Irshad ("Guidance Office"). Maktab al-Irshad consists of approximately 15 longtime Muslim Brothers including the Murshid, who heads the office. Each member of the office oversees a portfolio on an issue such as university recruitment, education, politics, etc. The office execute decisions made by the Majlis al-Shura and passes down orders through a change of command, consisting of "its deputies in each regional sector, who call their deputies in each subsidiary area, who call their deputies in each subsidiary populace, who call the heads of each local usra, who then transmit the order to their members."^[2]
• Majlis al-Shura ("Consultative Council"). This consists of approximately 100 Muslim Brothers. Debates and votes on important decisions, such as whether to participate in national elections. Elects members of the Maktab al-Irshad.^[2]

Social services

The brotherhood operates 21 hospitals throughout Egypt, providing modern medical care at subsidized prices. ^[46] It also operates job-training programmes.^[47], schools in every governorate in the country^[47] and programs to support widows and orphans.^[48]

An estimated 1,000 of the roughly 5,000 legally registered NGOs and associations in Egypt are run by the Brotherhood according to Abul Futouh, a leading brotherhood member.^[47] Its clinics are reputed to have more available basic supplies and more up-to-date equipment^[48]. However, the Brotherhood's network of organizations is complex, sometimes operate under different names, and is difficult to track.^[48]

The Brotherhood's response to the 1992 earthquake in Cairo, where 50,000 people were made homeless, was an example of the group's effectiveness, compared to that of the Egyptian government. It quickly mobilized to provide victims with food and blankets and setting up makeshift medical clinics and tents for shelter.^[48]

Muslim Sisterhood

The Muslim Sisterhood is the female division of the Muslim Brotherhood. The members of the Muslim Sisterhood have been traditionally more involved in charitable activities than other members of Muslim Brotherhood. The work of the Muslim Sisterhood has help to attract new members to the Muslim Brotherhood. Many of these members come from university campuses, mosques and trade unions. During the Egyptian revolution of 2011, members of the Muslim Sisterhood have become more politically active, and they participated in the founding of the Freedom and Justice Party by the Muslim Brotherhood in April 2011.^[49]

See also

• Muslim Brotherhood
• Egyptian Revolution of 2011

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} 'Shariah in Egypt is enough for us,' Muslim Brotherhood leader says|23 May 2011
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q} Foreign Affairs magazine, September October 2011, "The Unbreakable Muslim Brotherhood", by Eric Trager, p.114-222. (full text not available for free on internet)
3. ^ "In Egypt today, the Brotherhood counts perhaps some 100,000 adherents" Egypt’s Bumbling Brotherhood By SCOTT ATRAN 2 February 2011]
4. ^ "FAS Intelligence Resource Program". http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/mb.htm. 
5. ^ "Muslim Brotherhood Movement Homepage". http://www.ummah.net/ikhwan/. 
6. ^ Inside Egypt: The Land of the Pharaohs on the Brink of a Revolution by John R. Bradley, (Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), p.49
7. ^ Egypt global security.org
8. ^ Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood poised to prosper in post-Mubarak new era, Ian Black| guardian.co.uk| 19 May 2011
9. ^ ^{a b} Küntzel, 2002, pp. 17–19.
10. ^ A History of the Modern Middle East, William Cleveland, p.200
11. ^ See: Ian Johnson, A Mosque in Munich: Nazis, the CIA and Rise of the Muslim Brotherhood in the West (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010);
    Matthias Küntzel, Jihad and Jew-hatred: Islamism, Nazism and the Roots of 9/11 (New York: Telos Press, 2007);
    Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers, Halbmond und Hakenkreuz: Das 'Dritte Reich', die Araber und Palästina (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2006),
    and Klaus Gensicke, Der Mufti von Jerusalem und die Nationalsocialisten: Eine politische Biographie Amin el-Husseinis (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2007).
12. ^ In addition to the studies listed in the previous note, see the detailed and richly documented analysis by Jeffrey Herf, Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World (New Haven, London: Yale University Press, 2009).
13. ^ Chamieh, Jebran, Traditionalists, Militants and Liberal in Present Islam, Research and Publishing House, [1994?], p.140
14. ^ Wright, Robin, Sacred Rage 1985, p.179
15. ^ The Rebellion Within, An Al Qaeda mastermind questions terrorism. by Lawrence Wright. newyorker.com, June 2, 2008
16. ^ ^{a b} John Walsh. Harvard International Review: Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood. Perspectives on the United States, Vol. 24 (4) Winter 2003
17. ^ Robinson, Francis (2008). The Islamic world in the age of western dominance. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 9780521838269. 
18. ^ The Muslim Brotherhood uncovered Jack Shenker in Cairo and Brian Whitaker| guardian.co.uk| 8 February 2011
19. ^ Essam Elerian quoted in Egypt's winners and losers| Alaa Bayoumi| aljazeera.net| 29 Nov 2010
20. ^ Inside Egypt: The Land of the Pharaohs on the Brink of a Revolution by John R. Bradley, Palgrave MacMillan, 2008, p.56
21. ^ ^{a b} Osman, Tarek, Egypt on the Brink, (Yale University Press, 2010) p.101
22. ^ Osman, Tarek, Egypt on the Brink, (Yale University Press, 2010) p.102
23. ^ ^{a b} "Muslim Brotherhood Falters as Egypt Outflanks Islamists" By YAROSLAV TROFIMOV MAY 15, 2009 wsj.com
24. ^ Osman, Tarek, Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, 103
25. ^ The Brotherhood's Power display (18 December 2006) Jameel Theyabi| Dar Al-Hayat
26. ^ Osman, Tarek, Egypt on the Brink, (Yale University Press, 2010) p.113
27. ^ The Muslim Brotherhood Uncovered, Jack Shenker and Brian Whitaker, The Guardian, February 8, 2011
28. ^ ^{a b} Brotherhood Denies Seeking Egypt Power, 07 September 2011
29. ^ Egypt: Muslim Brotherhood sets up new party, 30 April 2011
30. ^ Freedom and Justice Party Open to Copt as Deputy, 2011 May 11
31. ^ Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood could be unraveling, By Leila Fadel, July 7, 2011
32. ^ El Rashidi, Yasmine, "Egypt: The Victorious Islamists", New York Review of Books, July 14, 2011
33. ^ Egyptian-American intellectual Mamoun Fandy claimed that as early as February 2011, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces and the MB had struck a deal, orchestrated by former Egyptian intelligence chief 'Omar Suleiman, to involve the MB in the government. According to Fandy, the SCAF intends to ensure the MB's victory in the elections, in return for an MB effort to draft a constitution guaranteeing the military a central role in running the country, as in the Turkish model. Al-Sharq Al-Awsat (London), July 4, 2011. quoted in Muslim Brotherhood Prepares for Parliamentary, Presidential Elections by L. Azuri. 25 October 2011
34. ^ see also: Fault Lines in Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood. Stephen Glain| August 24, 2011
35. ^ "The Principles of The Muslim Brotherhood". http://www.ikhwanweb.com/Article.asp?ID=813&LevelID=2&SectionID=116. 
36. ^ Bradley, John R., Inside Egypt, Palgrave MacMillan, (p.65)
37. ^ Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Sticks With Bin Laden| theatlantic.com| 3 May 2011
38. ^ On Bin Laden, Muslim Brotherhood Makes Different Statements in English and in Arabic| 2 May 2011| by Sami al-Abasi
39. ^ Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Sticks With Bin Laden| 3 May 2011
40. ^ Crane, Mary. "Does the Muslim Brotherhood Have Ties to Terrorism". Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/publication/9248/. 
41. ^ "Egypt unrest: What if Mubarak goes?". BBC News. 2011-01-31. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12325128. 
42. ^ Inside Egypt: The Land of the Pharaohs on the Brink of a Revolution by John R. Bradley, Palgrave MacMillan, 2008, p.229
43. ^ Atran, Scott (2011-02-02). "Egypt's Bumbling Brotherhood". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/03/opinion/03atran.html. 
44. ^ Fault Lines in Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Stephen Glain| August 24, 2011
45. ^ Fault Lines in Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Stephen Glain| August 24, 2011]
46. ^ Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood Flexes Potent Political Force| 14 September 2011
47. ^ ^{a b c} EGYPT: Social programmes bolster appeal of Muslim Brotherhood| 22 February 2006| IRIN
48. ^ ^{a b c d} Between Piety and Politics: Social Services and the Muslim Brotherhood, By Nadine Farag
49. ^ Amin, Shahira (August 3, 2011). "The feminine face of Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/08/03/egypt.muslim.sisterhood/index.html?&hpt=hp_c2. Retrieved August 3, 2011. 

Further reading

• Udo Ulfkotte: Der heilige Krieg in Europa - Wie die radikale Muslimbruderschaft unsere Gesellschaft bedroht. Eichborn Verlag 2007, ISBN 978-3-8218-5577-6
• Johannes Grundmann: Islamische Internationalisten - Strukturen und Aktivitäten der Muslimbruderschaft und der Islamischen Weltliga. Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-895-00447-2 (Review by I. Küpeli)
• Gilles Kepel: Der Prophet und der Pharao. Das Beispiel Ägypten: Die Entwicklung des muslimischen Extremismus. München Zürich 1995.
• Matthias Küntzel: Djihad und Judenhass. Freiburg im Breisgau 2003 (2. Aufl.)
• Richard P. Mitchell: The Society of the Muslim Brothers. London 1969.
• Emmanuel Razavi : Frères musulmans : Dans l'ombre d'Al Qaeda, Editions Jean Cyrille Godefroy, 2005
• Xavier Ternisien : Les Frères musulmans, Fayard, 2005
• Latifa Ben Mansour : Frères musulmans, frères féroces : Voyages dans l'enfer du discours islamiste, Editions Ramsay, 2002
• Paul Landau : Le Sabre et le Coran, Tariq Ramadan et les Frères Musulmans à la conquête de l'Europe, Editions du Rocher, 2005.
• Ted Wende : "Alternative oder Irrweg? Religion als politischer Faktor in einem arabischen Land", Marburg 2001

External links

• Ikhwan Online (Arabic)
• Ikhwan Web (English)
• Profile: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood, Al Jazeera English, February 6, 2011
• The Muslim Brotherhood Uncovered, Jack Shenker and Brian Whitaker, The Guardian, February 8, 2011
• Profile: Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood, BBC News, 9 February 2011