Century of humiliation

The century of humiliation (simplified Chinese: 百年国耻; traditional Chinese: 百年國恥; pinyin: bǎinián guóchǐ), also referred to as the century of national humiliation, the hundred years of humiliation, and similar permutations. Starting with the rise of modern nationalism in the 1920s, Guomindang and Communist propagandists and historians used these concepts to characterize the period of subjugation China suffered under imperialism, both Western and Japanese. ^[1]

History

The beginning of the century is usually dated to the mid-19th century, on the eve of the First Opium War^[2] and the widespread addiction and political unraveling of China that followed.^[3]

Other major events cited as part of the Century of humiliation are, the unequal treaties of Whampoa and Aigun, the Taiping Rebellion, the Second Opium War and the sacking of the Old Summer Palace, the Sino-French War, and the First Sino-Japanese War, and the British invasion of Tibet.^[4] In this period, China lost all the wars it fought and had to give major concessions to the great powers in the subsequent treaties.^[5]

And continued into the 20th Century with the Twenty-One Demands by Japan during WWI and the Second Sino-Japanese War during WWII.

It is generally considered to have ended with the expulsion of foreign powers from mainland China after World War II,^[6] and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Some commentators consider the century to have concluded with the reunification of Hong Kong and Macau with the PRC, ending foreign occupation of Chinese soil.^[7] Others go further to say that the century will not end until Taiwan is reunified with the mainland.^[8] Also note that some foreign "humiliations", such as the Amur Annexation, have not been undone, but they have been generally accepted by the Chinese people.

Implications

As a result of the Century of humiliation and the Chinese Communist Party's historiography^[9] "sovereignty and integrity of [Chinese] territory" is a major force in Chinese nationalism. It has colored Chinese perceptions of incidents like the US bombing of the People's Republic of China embassy in Belgrade, the Hainan Island incident, and European and American protests for Tibetan independence along the 2008 Beijing Olympics torch relay.^[10]

Criticism

Jane E. Elliott has criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat western militaries. Her research suggests that this was a myth, and that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals such as Hanyang Arsenal during the Boxer Rebellion. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the western victories. Many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives which were not disrupted, and did not feel any humiliation when defeated. She thinks it was the foreigners who were angry that they could not get the Chinese to feel defeated or humiliated.^[11]

See also

• Anti-Western sentiment in China
• Chinese Nationalism

References

1. ^ Alison Adcock Kaufman, "The “Century of Humiliation,” Then and Now: Chinese Perceptions of the International Order," Pacific Focus 25.1 (2010): 1-33.
2. ^ Paul A Cohen (2003). China Unbound. London: Routledge. p. 148. 
3. ^ Chang, Maria Hsia (2001). Return of the dragon: China's wounded nationalism. Westview Press. p. 69–70. ISBN 9780813338569. http://books.google.com/books?id=KYmiafRQP10C&pg=PA69. 
4. ^ "China Seizes on a Dark Chapter for Tibet", by Edward Wong, The New York Times, August 9, 2010 (August 10, 2010 p. A6 of NY ed.). Retrieved 2010-08-10.
5. ^ Nike, Lan (2003-11-20). "Poisoned path to openness". Shanghai Star. http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/star/2003/1120/cu18-1.html. Retrieved 2010-08-14. 
6. ^ A L Friedberg. "The Future of U.S.-China Relations: Is Conflict Inevitable?". International Security 2 (Fall 2005): pp 7–45, p 20. 
7. ^ Dong Wang (2005). China's unequal treaties: narrating national history. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. p. 78. 
8. ^ Muthiah Alagappa (2001). Taiwan's Presidential Politics. New York City: M. E. Sharpe. p. 33. 
9. ^ W A Callahan. "National Insecurities: Humiliation, Salvation and Chinese Nationalism". Alternatives 20 (2004): pp 199–218, p 199. http://www.humiliationstudies.org/documents/CallahanChina.pdf. 
10. ^ Jayshree Bajoria (April 23, 2008). "Nationalism in China". Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/publication/16079/nationalism_in_china.html. 
11. ^ Jane E. Elliott (2002). Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war. Chinese University Press. p. 143. ISBN 9629960664. http://books.google.com/books?id=wWvl9O4Gn1UC&q=chinese+fire+power+pinned+down+enemy#v=snippet&q=defeat%20peasants%20not%20humiliated%20at%20all&f=false. Retrieved 2010-6-28.