Ezhava

"Tiyan" redirects here. For the Tiyan area in Guam, see Barrigada, Guam.

Ezhava
ഈഴവര്‍

Sri Narayana Guru, Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker, Kumaran Asan Sreenivasan, S. K. Pottakkat V. S. Achuthanandan Pinarayi VijayanVayalar Ravi Itty Achudan, Moorkoth Kumaran, Manoj Shyamalan
Regions with significant populations
Kerala
Languages
Malayalam
Religion
Hinduism
Related ethnic groups
Billava, Illathu Pillaimar, Tivaru, Villavar

The Ezhavas (Malayalam: ഈഴവര്‍, Īḻavar) are a community with origins in the region presently known as Kerala. They are also known as Ilhava, Irava, Izhava and Erava in the south of the region; as Chovas, Chokons and Chogons in Central Travancore; and as Tiyyas, Thiyas and Theeyas in Malabar.^[1][2] The Malabar Tiyya group have claimed a higher ranking in the Hindu caste system than do the others, although from the perspective of the colonial and subsequent administrations they were treated as being of similar rank.^[1][3] There have been claims that the Ezhava are descendants of Villavar, who were ancient Chera kings.^{[4][5][dubious – discuss]}

As well as being agricultural laborers, small cultivators, toddy tappers, and liquor businessmen, some Ezhavas were also involved in weaving and some practised ayurvedic medicine. Ezhava dynasties such as the Izhathu Mannanars also existed in Kerala.^[6] The Chekavar, a warrior section within the community, were part of the militias of local chieftains and kings. There were also renowned Kalari Payattu experts among them.^[7][8]

Etymology

The etymology of Ezhava is uncertain.

History

Legend

According to legend and some Malayalam folk songs, the Ezhavas were the progeny of four bachelors that the king of Ceylon sent to Kerala at the request of the Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Varma, in the 1st Century AD. These men were sent, ostensibly, to set up coconut farming in Kerala. Another version of the story says that the Sri Lankan King sent eight martial families to Kerala at the request of a Chera king to quell a civil war that had erupted in Kerala against him.^{[9][clarification needed]}

Theories of origin

According to historian C. V. Kunjuraman, the two gods of the Buddhist Ezhavas, namely Cittan and Arattan, are in fact Buddhist Sidhan and Arhatan from Buddhism.^{[Full citation needed]} T. K. Veluppillai, the author of The Travancore State Manual, believes that during Buddhist ascendancy in Kerala, before the arrival of the Tulu Brahmins, "the Ezhavas enjoyed great prosperity and power" (II, 845). However, he also says that it is very unlikely that the Ezhavas came from Sri Lanka and spread all over Kerala; instead they were the mainstream of Munda-Dravidian immigrants who left Tamil Nadu in the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries to avoid persecution at the hands of their political enemies.^{[Full citation needed]}

Inscriptions

The 1st reference to the word Ezhava found in Arittapatti inscriptions of 3rd century BC near Madurai, talks about 'Eelava perumal, chief of Nelveli, has caused the carving of this auspicious cave'. Famous Kilavalavu Jain cave inscriptions of 3rd century BC talks about an ezhavan who built Buddhist monastery there. Another inscriptions of BC 2nd century found near Alakarmalai talks about an ezhava textile trader 'ezhathu theevan athan'.^{[10][Full citation needed][11][Full citation needed][12][Full citation needed]}

Social and religious divergence

It has been suggested that the Ezhavas may share a common heritage with the Nair caste. This theory is based on similarities between numerous of the customs adopted by the two groups, particularly with regard to marking various significant life stages such as childbirth and death, as well as their matrilineal practices and martial history. Oral history, folk songs and other old writings indicate that the Ezhavas were at some point in the past members of the armed forces serving various kings, including the Zamorins of Calicut and the rulers of the Cochin dynasty. Pullapilly has said that only a common parentage can explain some of these issues.^[13]

A theory has been proposed for the origins of the caste system in the Kerala region based on the actions of the Aryan Jains introducing such distinctions prior to the 8th-century AD. This argues that the Jains needed protection when they arrived in the area and recruited sympathetic local people to provide it. These people were then distinguished from others in the local population by their occupation as protectors, with the others all being classed as out-caste. Pullapilly describes that this meant they "... were given kshatriya functions, but only shudra status. Thus originated the Nairs." The Ezhavas, not being among the group protecting the Jains, became out-castes.^[13]

An alternate theory states that the system was introduced by the Nambudiri Brahmins. Although Brahmin influences had existed in the area since at least the 1st-century AD, there was a large influx from around the 8th-century when they acted as priests, counsellors and ministers to invading Aryan princes. At the time of their arrival the non-aboriginal local population had been converted to Buddhism by missionaries who had come from the north of India and from Ceylon. The Brahmins used their symbiotic relationship with the invading forces to assert their beliefs and position. Buddhist temples and monasteries were either destroyed or taken over for use in Hindu practices, thus undermining the ability of the Buddhists to propagate their beliefs.^[13]

The Buddhist tradition of the Ezhavas, and the refusal to give it up, pushed them to an outcaste role within the greater Brahminic society.^[13][14] Nevertheless, this tradition is still evident as Ezhavas show greater interest in the moral, non-ritualistic, and non-dogmatic aspects of the religion rather than the theological.^[13]

Past occupations

The Alummootil Meda. A grand manor and outhouses belonging to Ezhava aristocracy from history. Location: Mavelikara.

The traditional occupation of the Ezhavas was tending to and tapping the sap of coconut palms. This activity is sometimes erroneously referred to as toddy tapping, toddy being a liquor manufactured from the sap. Arrack was another liquor produced from the palms, as was jaggery (an unrefined sugar). In reality, most Ezhavas were agricultural labourers and small-time cultivators, with a substantial number diverging into the production of coir products, such as coconut mats for flooring, from towards the end of the 19th-century.^[1]

Some Ezhavas were involved in weaving and ship making.^[15]

Martial traditions

Many were employed as guards or sentinels in the palaces of Cochin and Travancore.^[16] Its believed that South Indian Hindu God, Lord Ayyappan, was trained in an ezhava Kalari of Cheerappanchira family. Kalari Panickers from an Ezhava tharavaad based at Kulathoor were trainers of the famous Ettuveetil Pillamars, and their descendants have looked after the Chamundi Devi (Kalari devatha) temple at Thozhuvancode, Thiruvananthapuram, Syrian Christians, allowed by the Hindu leaders to have their own private armies, recruited Ezhava members due in part to this tradition.^[17]

Chekavar

A warrior section among the community were called Chekavar/Chekavan/Chevakan/Chekon.^{[18][dubious – discuss]} Vadakkan Pattukal describes talents of chekors who formed militia of local cheftians and kings. It was also the title bestowed upon experts of Kalari Payattu. They were descendents of Villors or Villavar or Billavars who were warriors. They were trained under Maravars, a Dravidian martial tribe, accepted Buddhism in later stage. Villu(in Tamil and malayalm) or Billu(in Tulu), means bow and it was the Symbol of Chera kingdom. Thus as per his opinion, Chera kings were actually villavars. However, they were degraded after arrival of Brahmins and after establishing Chatur Varna system. Thereafter, they were accredited as chekavars or chevakars.Vadakkan Pattukal, collection of Malayalam Ballads of medieval origin present saga of chekava heroes.^[19]

Medicine and traditional toxicology

Many Ezhavas had an extensive knowledge of the medicinal value of plants,known as Vaidyars, these physicians based their knowledge on the works of their ancestors who were also physicians. The knowledge was thus handed down from generation to generation. Itti Achuden was probably the best known Ezhava physician who directly influenced the classification of Hortus Malabaricus in the 17th century. Itti Achuden's texts were written in the Kolezhuthu script that Ezhava castes used, for they were prevented from learning the more sanskritized Aryazuthu script which was the preserve of the upper-castes.^[20]

One of the early translations of Ashtanga Hridaya, a celebrated Sanskrit treatise on Ayurveda, in Malayalam was done by an Ezhava physician, Kayikkara Govindan Vaidyar^{[citation needed]}. Kuzhuppully and Pokkanchery families in Thrissur and Calicut respectively are traditional families of Ayurveda acharyans^{[citation needed]}. Cholayil family is one of the most famous and respected Ezhava Ayurvedic families in Kerala^{[citation needed]}.

Uracheril Gurukkal^[who?] instructed Hermann Gundert in the field of Sanskrit and Ayurveda, and Uppot kannan^[who?], who wrote interpretation of Yogamrutham (Ayurvedic text in Sanskrit by Ashtavaidyans), were also acclaimed Ezhava Ayurvedic scholars^{[citation needed]} . Famous Ezhava Vaidyar Sri C.R.Kesavan Vaidyar founder of Chandrika was awarded the title of Vaidyaratnam by K.C. Manavikraman Zamorin of Kozhikode in 1953.^{[citation needed]}

Some Ezhavas practiced ayurvedic medicine.^[21][22][23]

Many Ezhava families were practitioners of Visha chikitsa (toxicology), treating poisonous injuries from snakes and scorpions.^[24]

Other traditional occupations

A section of the community called Nadi ezhuvans or vaduvans (Vadukans) were involved in making toddy, which was both widely consumed alcoholic drink, and sometimes used in ayurveda medicine also. These families were rehabilitated under Kizhkudi(lower or inferior) clan. A few sections of the community were also involved in distilling arrack.^[25]

Sree Narayana Guru preached against toddy tapping and arrack brewing and as a result many discontinued the practices.^{[citation needed]}

Culture

Sree Muthappan Theyyam as Lord Vishnu & Lord Shiva

Ezhava/Channar Musicians from the 19th century: Performing the traditional "Villadichaampattu"

Theyyam or kaliyattam or theyyatom

In northern Kerala, Theyyam is a popular ritual dance. This particular dance form is also known as Kaaliyattam. The main deities of Ezhavas include Vayanattu Kulavan, Kathivannur Veeran, Poomaruthan, Muthappan.^[26][27]

Arjuna nritham or Mayilpeeli Thookkam

"Arjuna nritham" (the dance of Arjuna) or Mayilpeeli Thookkam is a ritual art performed by men of Ezhava community and is prevalent in the Bhagavathy temples of south Kerala, mainly in Kollam, Alappuzha and Kottayam districts. Arjuna nritham is also called "Mayilpeeli Thookkam" as the costume includes a characteristic garment made of mayilppeeli (peacock feathers). This garment is worn around the waist in a similar fashion as the "uduthukettu" of Kathakali. The various dance movements are closely similar to Kalarippayattu techniques. The performers have their faces painted green and wear distinctive headgears. The all night performance of the dance form is usually presented solo or in pairs.^[26]

Poorakkali

Poorakkali is a folk dance prevalent among the Ezhavas of Malabar, usually performed in Bhagavathy temples as a ritual offering during the month of Meenam (March - April). Poorakkali requires specially trained and highly experienced dancers, trained in Kalaripayattu, a system of physical exercise formerly in vogue in Kerala. Standing round a traditional lamp, the performers dance in eighteen different stages and rhythms, each phase called a niram.^[26]

Parichamuttu kali

Parichamuttu kali is a martial folk-dance prevalent among the Ezhavas around the Alappuzha, Kollam, Pathanamthitta, Kottayam, Ernakulam, Palghat and Malappuram districts. It is also performed by Christians and some other Hindu communities. Its origins date back to when Kalaripayattu, the physical exercise of swordplay and defence, was in vogue in Kerala. The performers dance with swords and shields in their hands, following the movements of sword fight, leaping forward, stepping back and moving round, all the time striking with the swords and defending with shields.^[26]

Makachuttu

Makachuttu art is popular among Ezhavas in Thiruvananthapuram and Chirayinkizhu taluks and in Kilimanoor, Pazhayakunnummal and Thattathumala regions. In this, a group of eight performers, two each, twin around each other like serpents and rise up, battling with sticks. The techniques are repeated several times. Sandalwood paste on the forehead, a red towel round the head, red silk around the waist and bells round the ankles form the costume. This is a combination of snake worship and Kalarippayattu.^[26][27]

Aivar kali

Literally, Aivarkali means the play of the five sets. This was a ritualistic art form performed in almost all important temples of Kerala. Today it is found in central Kerala. This is also known as Pandavarkali, which means the play of the Pandavas, (the five heroes of the Mahabharatha), and is performed by Asari, Moosari, Karuvan, Thattan and Kallasari communities. This ritualistic dance is performed beneath a decorated pandal with a nilavilakku at its centre. The five or more performers with their leader called Kaliachan enter the performance area after a ritualistic bath, with sandalwood paste over their foreheads, dressed in white dhoti, and with a towel wrapped around their heads.^[26]

Customs

Family system

Ezhavas adopted different patterns of behaviour across the region with regard to family. Those living in southern Travancore tended to meld the different practices that existed in the other areas. The family arrangements of northern Malabar were matrilineal with patrilocal property arrangements, whereas in northern Travancore they were matrilineal but usually matrilocal in their arrangements for property. South Malabar saw a patrilineal system but partible property. These arrangements were reformed by legislation, for Malabar in 1925 and for Travancore in 1933. The process of reform was more easily achieved for the Ezhavas than it was for the Nairs, another caste of the region who adopted matrilineal arrangements; the situation for the Nairs was complicated by a traditional matrilocal form of living called tharavadu and by their usually much higher degree of property ownership .^[1]

Snake worship

Main article: Sarpa Kavu

Main article: Snake worship

The snake worship (Nagaradhana) was prevalent among many Ezhava families all over Kerala,^{[citation needed]} but was most common among Malayalee and Tulu Billavas of North Malabar and Tulu Nadu. "Sarpa Kavu" (meaning "Abode of the Snake God"), a small traditional forest (mostly man made) of green pockets, would have idols of snake gods worshipped. For Ezhavas, Billavas and other similar communities, these sacred forests are found in any corner of the compound except the eastern side while other communities like the Nairs have this in the southwest corner of the Tharavadu.^[28][29]

Subcastes

The sub-divisions among South Kerala Ezhavas were Kollakkar or Channar Ezhavar, Malayalam Ezhavar (those earliest to Kerala), Nadi Ezhavar, Pachili Ezhavar (those who married from fishermen community), and Puzhakkar Ezhavar (menial servants of Malayalam Izhava). The Channar Izhavar claims superiority over other subdivisions. There were mainly three sub-castes among North Malabar Ezhavas namely Thiyya Chone (Chovan), Pandi Chon (Izhuvan) and Velan Kandi Chon.^[30] The South Malabar Thiyyas were subdivided into the Thiyya Chon, Vaisya Thiyya (Thekkan Chon), and Pandi Chon (Izhuvan).

Position in society

Although Ezhavas performed the work associated with the Hindu ritual rank (varna) of sudra, they were considered as untouchables or avarnas by the Nambudiri Brahmins who formed the clergy and ritual ruling elite in the region.^[1]

Conversion to Christianity

A sizeable part of the Ezhava community, especially in central Travancore and in the High Ranges, embraced Christianity during the British rule, due to caste-based discrimination. In Kannur, Protestant missions started working in the first half of the 19th century, when the Basel German Evangelical Mission was founded by Dr. H. Gundert. Most of their converts were from the Thiyya community.^[31]

Conversion to Sikhism in central Kerala

See also: Sikhism

During the Vaikom Satyagraha movement against untouchability, a few Akalis, an order of armed Sikhs, came to Vaikom in support of the demonstrators. After successfully completing the Satyagraha and after the Temple Entry Proclamation, some of the Akalis remained. Some Ezhava youth were attracted to the concepts of the Sikhism and as a result, joined the religion.^[32]

Spiritual and social movements

The lowly status of the Ezhava meant that, as Nossiter has commented, they had "little to lose and much to gain by the economic and social changes of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries". They sought the right to be treated as worthy of an English education and for jobs in government administration to be open to them.^[1] In 1896, a petition with more than 13,000 signatories was submitted to the government asking for the recognition of the right of the Ezhavas to enter government service; the upper caste Hindus of the state prevailed upon the Maharajah not to concede the request. The outcome not looking to be promising, the Ezhava leadership threatened that they would convert from Hinduism en masse, rather than stay as helots of Hindu society. Diwan, Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer, realizing the imminent danger, prompted the Maharajah to issue the Temple Entry Proclamation, which abolished the ban on lower-caste people from entering Hindu temples in the state of Travancore.^{[33][dubious – discuss]}

Eventually, in 1903, a small group of Ezhavas established Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalan Yogam (SNDP), the first caste association in the Kerala region, naming it after Sree Narayana Guru, who had established an ashram from where he preached his message of "one caste, one religion, one god" and a Sanskritised version of the Victorian concept of self-help. His influence locally has been compared to that of Swami Vivekananda. The organisation attracted support in Travancore but similar bodies in Cochin were less successful. In Malabar, which unlike Cochin and Travancore was under direct British control,^[34] the Tiyyas showed little interest in such bodies because they did not suffer the educational and employment discrimination found elsewhere, nor indeed were the disadvantages that they did experience strictly a consequence of caste alone.^[35]

Guru Jayanthi celebration at Gokaneswara Temple, Mangalore, Karnataka, India

The Ezhavas were not immune to being manipulated for covert political purposes. The Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924–1925 was a failed attempt to use the issue of avarna access to roads around temples in order to revive the fortunes of Congress, orchestrated by T. K. Madhavan, a revolutionary and civil rights activist,^[36] and with a famous temple at Vaikom as the focal point. Although it failed in its stated aim of achieving access, the satyagraha (movement) did succeed in voicing a "radical rhetoric".^[35]

The success of the SNDP in improving the lot of Ezhavas has been questioned. Membership had reached 50,000 by 1928 and 60,000 by 1974, but Nossiter notes that, "From the Vaikom satyagraha onwards the SNDP had stirred the ordinary Ezhava without materially improving his position." The division in the 1920s of 60,000 acres of properties previously held by substantial landowners saw the majority of Ezhava beneficiaries receive less than 1 acre each, although 2% of them took at least 40% of the available land. There was subsequently a radicalisation and much political infighting within the leadership as a consequence of the effects of the Great Depression on the coir industry but the general notion of self-help was not easy to achieve in a primarily agricultural environment; the Victorian concept presumed an industrialised economy. The organisation lost members to various other groups, including the communist movement, and it was not until the 1950s that it reinvented itself as a pressure group and provider of educational opportunities along the lines of the Nair Service Society (NSS), Just as the NSS briefly formed the National Democratic Party in the 1970s in an attempt directly to enter the political arena, so too in 1972 the SNDP formed the Social Revolutionary Party.^[35]

See also

• Caste system in Kerala
• Ediga
• Goud
• List of Ezhavas
• Tivaru

Notes

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Nossiter (1982) p. 30
2. ^ Thurston, Edgar (1909). Castes and Tribes of Southern India. 2. Madras Government Press. p. 392. http://www.archive.org/stream/castestribesofso02thuriala#page/392/mode/2up. Retrieved 2011-06-24. 
3. ^ Kodoth, Praveena (May 2001). "Courting Legitimacy or Delegitimizing Custom? Sexuality, Sambandham and Marriage Reform in Late Nineteenth-Century Malabar". Modern Asian Studies 35 (2): 350. JSTOR 313121. (subscription required)
4. ^ Devi, R. Leela (1986). History of Kerala. Vidyarthi. p. 48. http://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ&q=villavar&dq=villavar&hl=en&ei=Ztf0TfnjA4unrAf85t3DBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAjgK. Retrieved 2011-06-15. 
5. ^ Chopra, Pran Nath (1982). Religions and communities of India. Vision Books. p. 125. http://books.google.com/books?ei=5oT-TfbdLsLqrQebsM3yDw&ct=result&id=ggtuAAAAMAAJ&dq=cheras+ezhavas&q=chera#search_anchor. Retrieved 2011-06-15. 
6. ^ Pullapilly (1976) pp. 31-32
7. ^ Social Movements and Social Transformation.Page 23. Macmillan. 1979. http://books.google.com/books?id=tZAiAAAAMAAJ&q=Chekor+kalari&dq=Chekor+kalari&lr=&pgis=1. Retrieved 2007-12-28. 
8. ^ Farmers of India.Page 359. (Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1961. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&id=4P1IAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 01-12-2008. 
9. ^ EMS Namppothirppadu, Keralam Malayalikalude Mathrubhumi Desbhimany publications, VOl1, 1947 page 27
10. ^ Evolution of an Ethnic Identity in subcontinent, By K. Indrapala. New Age Publishing House, 1995
11. ^ Paper on Words of identity Of People of Srilanka, By Professor Peter Schalk, Uppsala University Publishing, 2001
12. ^ Ezhava-Thiyya Charitra Padanam, Prof K G Narayanan 1983
13. ^ ^{a b c d e} Pullapilly (1976) pp. 26-30
14. ^ Joseph, George Gheverghese (2003). On life and times of George Joseph, 1887-1938, a Syrian Christian nationalist from Kerala. Orient Longman. p. 18. ISBN 978-81-250-2495-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=A6MfPh-9DiEC&pg=PA25&sig=4Bh3Ye4d_lQ8lybX3AaBnMDQErI#PPA18,M1. Retrieved 2007-12-09. 
15. ^ Lemercinier, Geneviève (1984). Religion and ideology in Kerala. D.K. Agencies. p. 246. http://books.google.com/books?ei=4QkBTpOJDILlrAfQsqyBDQ&ct=result&id=bVgeAAAAMAAJ&dq=jaggery+izhava&q=jaggery. Retrieved 2011-06-21. 
16. ^ The Ethnographical Survey of the Cochin State. Cochin Government Press. 1907. ISBN 978-0-19-517706-0. http://books.google.com/books?q=sevakar&lr=&sa=N&start=20. Retrieved 2008-12-25. 
17. ^ Joseph, George Gheverghese (2003). On life and times of George Joseph, 1887-1938, a Syrian Christian nationalist from Kerala. Orient Longman. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-250-2495-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=A6MfPh-9DiEC&pg=PA25&sig=4Bh3Ye4d_lQ8lybX3AaBnMDQErI#PPA20,M1. Retrieved 2007-12-09. 
18. ^ Aiyappan, A. (1965). Social Revolution in a Kerala Village: A Study in Culture Change. Asia Publishing House. p. 85. http://books.google.com/books?id=mbkiAAAAMAAJ&q=Chekondq=Chekon+caste&lr=&ei=lEQETou_MJCQzgT0qMStCQ&cd=3. Retrieved 2007-12-28. 
19. ^ Pillai, Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan (1970). Studies in Kerala History. Kottayam: National Book Stall. pp. 111, 151–154. 
20. ^ Grove, Richard. "Indigenous Knowledge and the Significance of South-West India for Portuguese and Dutch Constructions of Tropical Nature". Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 30, No. 1 (Feb., 1996), pp. 121-143. JSTOR 312903. (subscription required)
21. ^ Alan Bicker, RF Ellen Peter Parkes (2000). Indigenous environmental knowledge and its transformations. Routledge. p. 9. http://books.google.com/books?id=FS7dkOgNGT0C&pg=PA9&dq=ezhava+ayurveda&hl=en&ei=rPj7TcKnG8nyrQet9py-Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2011-06-15. 
22. ^ Gadgil, Madhav (2005). Ecological Journeys. Orient Blackswan. p. 82. http://books.google.com/books?id=8XJ2HHZcM6oC&pg=PA83&dq=ezhava+ayurveda&hl=en&ei=dvH7TYXAEI_wrQfJr5HYDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ezhava%20ayurveda&f=false. Retrieved 2011-06-15. 
23. ^ Singh, Abhay Kumar (2006). Modern World System and Indian Proto-Industrialization. Northern book center. p. 312. http://books.google.com/books?id=WwNUblS-jpwC&pg=PA312&dq=ezhava+ayurveda&hl=en&ei=hPf7TZjLIozorQfRpaTVDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=ezhava%20ayurveda&f=false. Retrieved 2011-06-15. 
24. ^ S. N. Sadasivan (2000). A Social History of India. APH Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8135-3089-5. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&pg=PA349&lpg=PA349&dq=Parayil++ezhava&source=bl&ots=9i4nVbpkEj&sig=VpVFOSLOJH9CKkqXSOJe3xFEiy4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1. Retrieved 2007-12-08. 
25. ^ S. N. Sadasivan (2000). A Social History of India. APH Publishing. p. 347. ISBN 978-0-8135-3089-5. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&pg=PA349&lpg=PA349&dq=Parayil++ezhava&source=bl&ots=9i4nVbpkEj&sig=VpVFOSLOJH9CKkqXSOJe3xFEiy4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPA347,M1. Retrieved 2007-12-08. 
26. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Bernier, Ronald M. (1982). Temple Arts of Kerala: A South Indian Tradition. Asia Book Corporation of America. ISBN 978-0-940500-79-2. 
27. ^ ^{a b} Chaitanya, Krishna (1987). Arts of India. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170172093. 
28. ^ Keralakaumudi, Sree Narayana Directory, (Kaumudi Publications, 2007)
29. ^ "DownToEarth supplement". CSE India. CSE India. Archived from the original on 2008-04-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20080406160012/http://www.cseindia.org/dte-supplement/forest20031231/what_sacred.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-30. 
30. ^ Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society. Anthropology Periodicals. p. 53. http://books.google.com/books?id=4aQiAAAAMAAJ&q=izhavan&dq=izhavan&lr=&pgis=1. Retrieved 2008-04-30. 
31. ^ Kareem, C.K (1976). Kerala District Gazetteers: Palghat. printed by the Superintendent of Govt. Presses. p. 188. http://books.google.com/books?id=wFsbAAAAIAAJ&q=cannanore+thiyya&dq=cannanore+thiyya&hl=en&ei=2XcETtiiOI3jrAfTt4CSDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA. Retrieved 2011-06-24. 
32. ^ Kusuman, K.K (1976). The abstention movement. Kerala Historical Society. p. 19. http://books.google.com/books?id=C8EBAAAAMAAJ&q=sikhism+ezhava&dq=sikhism+ezhava&hl=en&ei=IZYETp-9FInYrQeSz7mYDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBA. Retrieved 2011-06-15. 
33. ^ Dr. Palpu, Treatment of Tiyas in Travancore
34. ^ Gough, E. Kathleen (1961). "Nayars: Central Kerala". In Schneider, David Murray; Gough, E. Kathleen. Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. p. 304. ISBN 9780520025295. http://books.google.com/books?id=lfdvTbfilYAC&pg=PA304. 
35. ^ ^{a b c} Nossiter (1982) pp. 30-32
36. ^ Pullapilly (1976) p. 38

Bibliography

• Nossiter, Thomas Johnson (1982). "Kerala's identity: unity and diversity". Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520046672. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=8CSQUxVjjWQC. Retrieved 2011-06-09. 
• Pullapilly, Cyriac K. (1976). "The Izhavas of Kerala and their Historic Struggle for Acceptance in the Hindu Society". In Smith, Bardwell L.. Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia. International studies in sociology and social anthropology. 22. Netherlands: E. J. Brill. ISBN 9789004045101. http://books.google.com/books?id=xNAI9F8IBOgC&pg=PA38. Retrieved 2011-06-09. 

External links

• Ezhava.org