Designer baby

The colloquial term "designer baby" refers to a baby whose genetic makeup has been artificially selected by genetic engineering combined with in vitro fertilisation to ensure the presence or absence of particular genes or characteristics.^[1] The term is derived by comparison with "designer clothing". It implies the ultimate commodification of children and is therefore usually used pejoratively to signal opposition to such use of reprogenetics.^[2]

Ethics

The technical capacity to heritably modify the biology of mammals, available since the 1980s, has led to proposals to apply such methods to the biological improvement of humans. The term "designer baby," originally used pejoratively, has gained currency as a relatively neutral shorthand for such manipulations, which, as far as the public record is concerned, have yet to be implemented. Supporters of designer baby technology include liberal technophiles, libertarians, and transhumanists, who variously believe in a moral imperative to improve society by improving the health, intelligence or physical capability of individuals, or in the right of individuals over the disposition of their own bodies and those of their unborn children. Opponents of the prospect of designer babies include those who object to experimentation on human embryos, either because they reject abortion, which would be an inevitable consequence of some designer baby attempts, or because they oppose experimentation on humans in the absence of informed consent. Some have projected a dystopia in which a race of superior humans look down on those without genetic enhancements, though others have counselled accepting this vision of the future.^[3] If genetic manipulation could successfully prevent diseases and disabilities, some have anticipated that discrimination against those with disabilities would greatly rise. It has also been suggested that genetic engineering could have deleterious effects on the human gene pool.^[4]

Genetic modification is widely believed to be capable of altering the full range of biological traits, from gender to susceptibility to disease, and eventually appearance, personality, and even IQ. Such broad claims for the efficacy of genetic manipulation have been disputed, however. Nonetheless, the perceived desirability of genetic modification technology has led to controversies concerning the price of such procedures and its ability to create a gap in society. Altering embryos is fairly recent technology and as it develops is a very costly procedure. With only the wealthy being able to pay for the modification that will eliminate disease for their children and eventually choose to treat people with disabilities or diseases and those used to enhance healthy people. They are particularly wary of this technology’s ability to lead to a new eugenics where individuals are "bred" or designed to suit social preferences such as above average height, certain hair color, increased intelligence, or greater memory. Not only is the prospect of future generations of "better people" a metaphysical concern, but apprehension also arises from the possibility that such groups of people might become prejudiced against one another due to a feeling of lost common humanity with non-enhanced or differently-enhanced groups. Within journalistic coverage of the issue, as well as within the analysis of bioconservative critics, the issue of safety takes a secondary role to that of humanity, because it is thought that the ethical issue of safety can eventually be resolved by innovation and so should not be focused on due to its fallibility. The so-called Frankenstein argument asserts that genetically engineering designer babies would compel us to think of each other as products or devices rather than human individuals.

The genetic modification of humans can pose an ethical debate about the rights of the baby. One side of this issue is that the fetus should be free to not be genetically modified. Once the genetic modification of the fetus takes place then the baby is changed forever, there is no chance that the genetic modification completed prior to birth could ever be reversed. The opposing view to this is that the parents are the ones with the rights to their unborn child, so they should be able to have the option to alter their genetic code. Despite the pejorative nature of the term "designer baby", a minority of bioethicists consider the notion of a designer baby, once the reprogenetic technology is shown to be safe, to be a responsible and justifiable application of parental procreative liberty. The usage of genetic engineering (amongst other techniques) on one's children is said to be defensible as procreative beneficence, the moral obligation of parents to try to give their children the healthiest, happiest lives possible. Some futurists claim that it would put the human species on a path to participant evolution.^[3][5]

Cost

One round of in vitro fertilization (IVF) typically costs around 9,000 USD. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) adds another $4,000 to $7,500 to the cost of each IVF attempt. A standard round of IVF results in a successful pregnancy only 10-35% of the time (depending on the age and health of the woman), and a woman may need to undergo subsequent attempts to achieve a viable pregnancy. As a result, a successful pregnancy is very costly – and cost-prohibitive – for most women. ^[6]

Biological risks

There is a wide variety of biological risks associated with genetic modifications. There may be irreversible genes that get passed from generation to generation with germline treatment/enhancement. New diseases may be introduced, although we can’t predict what they may be until they appear. It is commonly known that the gene for sickle cell anemia confers resistance to malaria. This involves an instance called pleiotropy. If we completely eradicate sickle cell anemia, then more people could possibly die due to contracting malaria.^[7] This sheds a little light onto how complex the genome actually is. While inserting a gene to serve one purpose, we may cause other traits to be expressed that could be harmful to us. The repercussions of using seemingly harmless technologies that have not been adequately tested could be detrimental to us all.^{[citation needed]}

Future technology

Genome sequencing

In the near future, there may be devices in each laboratory and doctor’s office that can sequence anyone’s entire genome. At the cost of $1,000, people can use this to determine their chances of disease or the origin of their non-disease-related traits, as well as discover patterns in DNA sequences and understand the complexities of specific traits.^[7]

Viral injection

Gene implantation using viruses starts with a non-virulent virus being injected with a specific gene that the scientist wants to be expressed. Usually, another gene is attached to the desired one that can help determine if the cells took up the gene. This other gene may code for the resistance to an antibiotic or produce a fluorescent color. Once the virus is implanted into the embryos, those cells are cultured. After a few cycles of mitosis, the cells that survive a dose of antibiotic treatment or that are fluorescent are then transferred into the uterus. A test of the reliability of viral vectors was done in 2000 at Necker Hospital.^[7] Ten children who had a rare disease of X-SCID, a hereditary immunodeficiency disease similar to AIDS, were involved in the trial. After taking blood samples and infusing them with harmless retroviruses carrying the gene to correct the initial gene that was causing their illness, the blood was transfused back into the ten children. Because of the misplacement of the gene, three of the children developed leukemia. Therefore, the problem with viral injection is misinsertion. Viral DNA places itself anywhere on any chromosome, which can lead to problems with the functioning of other genes, otherwise known as insertional mutagenesis. However, nine of the ten were cured of the initial disease, so viral injection is still a plausible technology to be used for a "designer baby."

Homologous recombination

One of the more promising techniques of proper gene insertion is homologous recombination. This process of identifying, cutting out, and replacing a misspelled sequence of DNA letters occurs naturally in the cell. While homologous recombination avoids the problem of insertional mutagenesis, it is very inefficient, producing only about one out of a million cells that have actually taken up the new gene sequence.

Human artificial chromosome

Another possibility is the use of human artificial chromosomes, or HACs. This would involve adding a completely new chromosome to the forty-six others that we already have. The benefits are that the new genes on the HACs would not disrupt the existing genes on the other chromosomes and scientists would be able to create promoter regions that could be used to turn the gene on and off. There are critical flaws in this method, though, including the fact that usually extra chromosomes have been linked to diseases. Also, in order to pass along genes to offspring, there must be a matching chromosome from the other partner, so at least right away these HACs may not be particularly useful for germline, or sex cell, modifications.

See also

• Eugenics in the United States
• Gattaca
• Genetically modified organism
• Gundam Seed

References

1. ^ Designer Babies: Ethical Considerations - Nicholas Agar - An ActionBioscience.org original article
2. ^ McGee, Glenn (2000). The Perfect Baby: A Pragmatic Approach to Genetics. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8344-3. 
3. ^ ^{a b} Silver, Lee M. (1998). Remaking Eden: Cloning and Beyond in a Brave New World. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-380-79243-5. 
4. ^ Stephen L. Baird, Designer Babies: Eugenics Repackaged or Consumer Options.(April 2007), available through Technology Teacher Magazine.
5. ^ Hughes, James (2004). Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the Redesigned Human of the Future. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-4198-1. 
6. ^ "Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)". Reproductive Health Technologies Project. http://www.rhtp.org/fertility/pgd/default.asp. 
7. ^ ^{a b c} Green, Ronald M. (2007). Babies By Design. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-0-300-12546-7. 129954761. 

External links

• Bonsor, Kevin. Howstuffworks: How Designer Children Will Work
• Strongin, Laurie Saving Henry, a non-fiction account of Strongin's pioneering use of IVF and PGD to have a healthy child whose cord blood could save the life of her son Henry