Ecology of the Sierra Nevada

:"See Sierra Nevada for general information about the mountain range in the United States."

The Ecology of the Sierra Nevada, located in the U.S. state of California, is diverse and complex: the plants and animals are a significant part of the scenic beauty of the mountain range.The combination of climate, topography,
moisture, and soils influence the distribution of ecological communitiesacross an elevation gradient from 1,000 feet (300 m) to over 14,000 feet(4,300 m). Biotic zones range from scrub and chaparralcommunities at lower elevations, to subalpine forests and alpine meadows atthe higher elevations. There are numerous hiking trails in the Sierra Nevada, which provide access forexploring the different vegetation zones.cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/yose/nature/vegetation.htm|title=Vegetation Overview|work=Vegetation, Yosemite National Park|publisher=United States National Park Service|quote=adapted public domain text]

The western and eastern Sierra Nevada have substantially different species of plants andanimals, because the east lies in the rain shadow of the crest. The plants and animals in the east are thus adapted to much drier conditions.cite book|title=A Natural History of California|first=Allan A.|last=Schoenherr|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0-520-06922-6|year=1992]

The altitudes listed for the biotic zones are for the central Sierra Nevada. The climate across the north-south axis of the range varies somewhat: the boundary elevations of the biotic zones move by as much as 1000' from the north end to the south end of the range.

Western biotic zones

Foothill Woodland and Chaparral Zone

The lowest-elevation biotic zone in the Sierra Nevada is found along the boundarywith the Central Valley. This zone,stretching in elevation from 1000 feet (300 m) to 3000 feet (900 m), is thefoothill woodland zone, an area that is hot and dry in the summer withvery little or no snow in the winter. Plants within this zone include
chamise, ceanothus, manzanita, blue oak, interior live oak, and Gray Pine. Animals typical of this zone include black bear, ringtail cat, coyote, gray squirrel, bobcat, California Mule Deer, and skunk.

Lower Montane Forest

Beginning near the 3,000 foot (900 m) elevation, the hot, dry summers andcool, moist winters of the Mediterranean climate give rise to the lower
montane forest zone. This zone is also known as the Yellow pineforest zone. The accumulation of several feet of snow during the winteris not uncommon and can stay on the ground for several months. Thediversity of tree species found in this zone make this a beautiful andinteresting forest to explore. The lower montane forests include trees suchas California black oak, Ponderosa Pine, Incense-cedar, and
White Fir. The Giant Sequoia groves of the Sierra Nevada are alsofound within this biotic zone. Animals that may be found in this zone include the Dark-eyed Junco, Mountain Chickadee, Western gray squirrel,
Mule deer, and American black bear. The lower montane forest can be seen in Yosemite Valley and along the Wawona, Hetch Hetchy, and Big Oak Flat Roads.

Upper Montane Forest

The upper montane forest begins at higher elevations near 7,000 feet(2100 m), where the montane climate is characterized by short, moist, coolsummers and cold, wet winters. Snow begins to fall in November and mayaccumulate to depths up to six feet (1.8 m) and remain until June. Purestands of Red Fir and Lodgepole Pine are typical of thisforest. Jeffrey Pine, which has bark that smells like vanilla,and the picturesque Western Juniper can also be found in thiszone. Wildflowers bloom in meadows from June throughAugust. Common animals in this zone include the Hermit Thrush,
Dusky Grouse ("Dendragapus obscurus"), Great Grey Owl, Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel, and (more rarely) the Marten. Upper montane forests may be viewed from the Tioga Pass Road east of Crane Flat, Glacier Point Road, and State Route 108.

ubalpine Forest

The upper montane forest is replaced by the subalpine forest near 9,000 feet (2750 m),where the climate is cooler with an even shorter growing season due to long, cold, and snowy winters. Accumulations of three to nine feet (1 to 2.5 m) of snow are typical. The Western White Pine, Mountain Hemlock, and Lodgepole Pine are found in this forest with many subalpine meadows that flower from July through August. Many species live in, or are transient in, this zone, including Clark's Nutcracker. This zone can be seen from the Tuolumne Meadows area east to Tioga Pass.

Alpine Zone

The alpine zone begins near the 9,500 foot (2,900 m)elevation and is easily distinguished as it is above tree line. Notrees grow in this zone due to the harsh climatic conditions. Short, coolsummers with long, cold, and snowy winters are typical at theseelevations. Many exposed granitic outcroppings, talus slopes,and boulder fields limit the amount of vegetation that grows here. Theherbaceous plants need to flower and produce their seeds quickly duringthe short, frost-free period of summer. Some animal species that are adapted to this zone include the American Pika, Belding's Ground Squirrel,the Yellow-Bellied Marmot, and the endangered Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep. This zone can be viewed up close by hiking or climbing into the high elevations of the Sierra.

Eastern biotic zones

The four highest eastern biotic zones are the same as the western zones, but at a higher elevation, due to less precipitation:
* Alpine zone: 12,000 feet (3700 m) and above
* Subalpine forest: 10,500 feet (3200 m) - 12,000 feet (3700 m)
* Upper montane forest: 9,000 feet (2700 m) - 10,500 feet (3200 m)
* Lower montane forest: 7,000 feet (2100 m) - 9,000 feet (2700 m) (heavily dominated by Jeffrey Pines).

In the Owens Valley, the Foothill Woodland Zone is replaced by a
Pinyon-Juniper Woodland Zone, characterized by
Single-leaf Pinyon Pines, Sierra Junipers. The underbrush contains Big Sagebrush ("Artemisia tridentata") and Black Bush ("Coleogyne ramosissima"). Jeffrey Pines may occur along streams. Notable animals in this zone include the Pinyon Jay and the Desert Bighorn Sheep. The Pinyon-Juniper Woodland Zone extends down to 5,000 feet (1500 m) elevation.

Below 5,000 feet (1500 m), there is not enough precipitation to supporttrees. The zones below this elevation are the Sagebrush Scrub Zone,Saltbush Scrub Zone, and the Alkali Sink Zone. These zones aredistinguished by soil salinity.

Threats

Exotic Plants in Yosemite National Park

Yosemite National Park has documented more than 130 non-native plant species within park boundaries. These non-native plants were introduced into Yosemite following the migration of early European American settlers in the late 1850s. Natural and human-caused disturbances, such as wildland fires and construction activities, have contributed to a rapid increase in the spread of non-native plants. A number of these species aggressively invade and displace the native plant communities, resulting in impacts on the park's resources. Non-native plants can bring about significant changes in park ecosystems by altering the native plant communities and the processes that support them. Some non-native species may cause an increase in the fire frequency of an area or increase the available nitrogen in the soil that may allow more non-native plants to become established. Many non-native species, such as yellow starthistle ("Centaurea solstitialis"), are able to produce a long tap root that allows them to out-compete the native plants for available water.cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/yose/nature/veg_exotics.htm|title=Exotic Plants|work=Vegetation, Yosemite National Park|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|quote=adapted public domain text]

Bull thistle ("Cirsium vulgare"), Common Mullein ("Verbascum thapsus"), and Klamath weed ("Hypericum perforatum") have been identified as noxious pests in Yosemite since the 1940s. Additional species that have been recognized more recently as aggressive and requiring control are yellow starthistle, sweet clovers ("Melilotus" spp.), Himalayan blackberry ("Rubus discolor"), Cut-leaved blackberry ("Rubus laciniatus") and periwinkle ("Vinca major").

Lodgepole Needle Miner

The Lodgepole Needle Miner ("Coleotechnites milleri") is an insect, endemic to the upper Tuolumne and Merced River watersheds of Yosemite National Park and one small headwaters drainage of the San Joaquin River (Sierra National Forest). It lives mostly within the needles of Lodgepole Pine for two years, emerging as a little gray moth for a few weeks in July of odd-numbered years. This keeps any predators from becoming effective control agents and allows populations to escalate rapidly. While regular prehistoric outbreaks of Lodgepole Needle Miners have been confirmed through dendrochronology, historic records document outbreaks from 1903 to 1921, 1933 to 1941, and 1947 to 1963.cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/yose/nature/veg_miner.htm|title=Lodgepole Needle Miner|work=Vegetation, Yosemite National Park|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|quote=adapted public domain text]

Extensive stands of "Ghost Forest" and jackstrawed trees are still conspicuous throughout Sierra Nevada. Annual monitoring of Lodgepole Needle Miner density began in 1966, and 28 permanent plots are scattered north of the Cathedral Range. The current outbreak began in 1973 and has been sweeping around the south side of the Cathedral Range, arriving at Sunrise High Sierra Camp in 2001. The Ghost Forest which was evident at the crest between Tenaya Lake and Tuolumne Meadows in the late 1970s was noticeably reforested by 2000. Lodgepole Needle Miner defoliation currently extends over approximately 40,000 acres (162 km²), with nearly 10,000 acres (40 km²) of low to high mortality each year.

While lightning fires are frequent in lodgepole pine communities, they usually remain small, with estimated fire return intervals at Yosemite National Park that are long (relative to most other forest types). Thus, fire suppression activities are thought to have had relatively little influence upon species composition, structure, fuels, and natural processes in lodgepole forests. Also, in comparison with Rocky Mountains lodgepole pine forests, fire plays a relatively smaller role, and so the needle miner assumes greater importance in lodgepole pine forest population dynamics in the Sierra Nevada. However, Rocky Mountain lodepole forest dynamics are also heavily influenced by insect outbreaks, primarily bark beetles.

pecial-Status Species

There are at least 1,300 vascular plant species in the Sierra Nevada, along with numerous bryophytes and lichens. There are at least 450 species of vertebrate animals. A total of 135 plant species in the Sierra Nevada have status as Threatened, Endangered, or Sensitive [cite web|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/snfpa/final-seis/vol1/appendix-c/assessments/vpbf/index.html|title=Appendix C, Assessments of Individual Species:Vascular Plants, Bryophytes, and Fungi|work=SNFPA Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement|date=January 2004]

Plants that are Federal species of concern (former Category 2 species) under the Federal Endangered Species Act include:
#Three-bracted Onion ("Allium tribracteatum"),
#Yosemite Woolly Sunflower ("Eriophyllum nubigenum"),
#Congdon's Lomatium ("Lomatium congdonii"),
#Tiehm's Rock-cress ("Arabis tiehmii"),
#Slender-stemmed Monkeyflower ("Mimulus filicaulis"), and
#Bolander's Clover ("Trifolium bolanderi").Although Category 2 was abolished in 1996, species of concern is an informal term that refers to those species that might be declining or be in need of concentrated conservation actions to prevent decline. Therefore, these six species continue to be evaluated and managed by the National Park Service.cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/yose/nature/veg_sensitive.htm|title=Special Status Plants|work=Vegetation, Yosemite National Park|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|quote=adapted public domain text]

Four state-listed rare plant species are considered restricted and limited throughout all or a significant portion of their range, and may represent disjunct populations at the extreme end of their range:
#Yosemite Onion ("Allium yosemitense"),
#Tompkin's Sedge ("Carex tompkinsii"),
#Congdon's Woolly Sunflower ("Eriophyllum congdonii"), and
#Congdon's Lewisia ("Lewisia congdonii").

Endangered or threatened species of animals that occur in the Sierra Nevada include: [cite web|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/r5/snfpa/final-seis/vol1/appendix-c/assessments/etps/index.html|title=Appendix C, Assessments of Individual Species: Endangered, Threatened, and Proposed Species|work=SNFPA Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement|date=January 2004]
#Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep
#California Condor
#Southwestern Willow Flycatcher
#Paiute Cutthroat Trout
#Lahontan Cutthroat Trout
#Owens Tui chub ("Gila bicolor")

Wetlands

Wetlands in the Sierra Nevada occur in valley bottoms throughout the range, and are often hydrologically linked to nearby lakes and rivers through seasonal flooding and groundwater movement. Meadow habitats, distributed at elevations from 3,000 feet to 11,000 feet, are generally wetlands, as are the riparian habitats found on the banks of numerous streams and rivers.cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/yose/nature/veg_wetlands.htm|title=Wetlands|work=Vegetation, Yosemite National Park]

The Sierra contain three major types of wetland:
#Riverine,
#Lacustrine, and
#Palustrine Each of these types of wetlands varies in geographic distribution, duration of saturation, vegetation community, and overall ecosystem function. All three types of wetlands provide rich habitat for plant and animal species, delay and store seasonal floodwaters, minimize downstream erosion, and improve water quality.

"Riverine" wetlands are found within river and stream channels and are strongly influenced by seasonal runoff patterns. When inundated, riverine wetlands provide habitat for water-tolerant plants such as willows, and aquatic animals such as tadpoles and immature fish.

"Lacustrine" wetlands generally occur on river floodplains and along lakeshores and are influenced by seasonal variations in groundwater levels. These wetlands are relatively rare in the mountain range, but support an abundance of warm-water loving plant and animal species.

"Palustrine" wetlands are typically distinguished from riverine and lacustrine systems by the presence of very dense covers of trees, shrubs, or emergent plants. This wetland type includes wet meadows, densely vegetated riparian habitats, and shallow ponds. They provide cover and forage for wildlife traveling between upland and aquatic habitats.

Since the 1970s the United States has made substantial progress toward protecting and restoring wetland habitats. All federal land in the Sierra Nevada complies with a 1990 Presidential Executive Order that mandates 'no net loss' of wetlands, and requires federal agencies to map and protect all existing wetlands.

In 1996 the National Fish and Wildlife Service delineated and classified some of the wetlands of the Sierra Nevada, including all of Yosemite National Park. This was performed through an analysis of aerial photographs and topographic maps, as a part of the National Wetlands Inventory Web Site (NWI). The NWI maps have not been rigorously ground-truthed and only delineate wetlands larger than five acres (20,000 m²) in size.

The National Park Service restores to natural conditions wetlands that have been drained or filled in the past. Most recently in Yosemite Valley, the Cook's Meadow restoration project involved filling old drainage ditches that were draining the meadow and removing an old roadbed that was inhibiting water flow. These actions are currently being monitored with vegetation transects and mapping of surface water to determine how successful the project was in restoring the wetland.

References

* Storer, T. I., Usinger, R.L., and D. Lukas. 2004. "Sierra Nevada Natural History". University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-24096-0.
* Weeden , N.L. 1996. "A Sierra Nevada Flora". Wilderness Press, ISBN 0-89997-204-7.

External links

* [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/50527frame.htm Sierra Nevada Forests images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu] ( [http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/50527.htm slow modem version] )
* [http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/na/na0527_full.html World Wildlife Fund Terrestrial Ecoregions - Sierra Nevada forests (NA0527)]