Kurdistan Workers Party

Infobox militant organization
name=Kurdistan Workers' Party Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan, (PKK)
logo=PKK.svg
caption=The current PKK flag used since 2005
dates=1978-present
leader=The current official leader is Murat Karayilan. Abdullah Öcalan (also known as "Apo") was one of the founders and still directs the party from his prison cell, through his lawyer.Tahiri, Hussein. "The Structure of Kurdish Society and the Struggle for a Kurdish State." Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publications 2007. pp 232 ff] [cite news|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/11/07/siyaset/siy01.html
title=Kenan Evren: 'Kürtçeye ağır yasak koyduk ama hataydı'
work=Milliyet
date=2007-11-07
accessdate=2008-07-30
first=Fikret
last=Bila
language=Turkish
quote=Şimdi İmralı'dan PKK'yı yönetiyor. Cezaevinden avukatları kanalıyla.] [cite news|work=BBC News|accessdate=2007-09-01|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/535312.stm|title=Ocalan: Which way now?|date=2000-11-21]
motives=The creation of an independent socialist state of "Kurdistan" in parts of present Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria. Cultural and political rights for the Kurdish population in Turkey. [cite news|work=Guardian|accessdate=2008-08-01|url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1482808,00.html|title=Radical firebrand who led bloody nationalist war| date=2005-05-13|first=Michael|last=Howard]
area=Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria
ideology= Kurdish nationalism, Marxism-Leninism
strength= As high as 90,000 in the early 1990's, an estimated 3,000 in the fall of 2007 [cite news
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7033075.stm
accessdate=2008-07-23
work=BBC News
date=2007-10-07
title=Turkish soldiers killed by rebels] [cite web
url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/library/reports/crs/Cterror2.htm
title=Terrorism: Middle Eastern Groups and State Sponsors, 1998 August 27,
work=GlobalSecurity.org
accessdate=2008-07-23
date=1998-08-27
first=Kenneth
last=Katzman]
status=Designated as Foreign Terrorist Organization by the US State Departmentcite web|url= http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/fs/2002/12535.htm|title=Foreign Terrorist Organizations List|publisher=United States Department of State| date=2002-10-23| accessdate=2008-02-23 - USSD Foreign Terrorist Organization] cite web| url=http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2006/82738.htm| work=Country Reports on Terrorism|title=Chapter 6—Terrorist Groups| date=2005-04-27| publisher=United States Department of State
accessdate=2008-07-23] Designated as Proscribed Group by the UK Home OfficeFact|date=February 2008 Designated as terrorist group by EU Common Foreign and Security Policy.Fact|date=February 2008
crimes=Assassination, Bombing Attacks, Chemical Warfare, Drug Trafficking, Extortion, Human Trafficking, Kidnapping, Sabotage, Suicide Bombings [cite news
url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4690181.stm
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=PKK 'behind' Turkey resort bomb
date=2008-06-29
work=BBC News
date=2005-07-17]
size=6000The Kurdistan Workers' Party ( _ku. Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan or PKK, also called KADEK, Kongra-Gel, and KGK) is a militant organization founded in the 1970s and led by Abdullah Öcalan. The PKK's ideology is founded on revolutionary Marxism-Leninism and Kurdish nationalism. The PKK's goal has been to create an independent, socialist Kurdish state in Kurdistan; a geographical region that comprises parts of southeastern Turkey, northeastern Iraq, northeastern Syria and northwestern Iran, where the Kurdish population is the majority. This goal has now been moderated to claiming cultural and political rights for the ethnic Kurdish population in Turkey.

The PKK has fairly wide support among the Kurdish population in Turkey, and limited support in other parts of Kurdistan. [cite news|work=BBC News|accessdate=|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7044760.stm|title=Profile: PKK rebel group|date=2007-10-15] [Tahiri, Hussein. "The Structure of Kurdish Society and the Struggle for a Kurdish state". Costa mesa 2007, Mazda Publishers, chapters 7 & 8] It is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states and organizations, including the United States, NATO and the European Union. The organisation is listed as one of the 12 active terrorist organisation in Turkey as of 2007 according to the Counter-Terrorism and Operations Department of Directorate General for Security (Turkish police). [ [http://www.egm.gov.tr/temuh/terorgrup1.html Türkiye'de Halen Faaliyetlerine Devam Eden Baslica Terör Örgütleri] , Terörle Mücadele ve Harekat Dairesi Başkanlığı tr icon] Turkey labeled the organization as an ethnic secessionist organization that uses terrorism and the threat of force against both civiliancite news|title=Turkish Kurds: some back the state|work=Christian Science Monitor|date=2007-07-06|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0706/p06s02-wosc.html] [cite news|title=PKK baskınına uğrayan Kürt köyleri ABD gazetesine haber oldu|language=Turkish|work=Milliyet|date=2007-07-07|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/07/07/son/sondun06.asp] and military targets for the purpose of achieving its political goal.

Name

The group is commonly referred as the PKK despite the organization's self-declared name changes, names used by its branches, front groups established, and names used by vassal structures established. For convenience, we refer to the group as "the organization" hereafter.

The organization introduced to the intelligence community as "Apocus" in the late 1979 more than a year after its establishment in 1978 from ex-members of existing leftist groups.

During more than three decades of existence, organization declared name changes without changing its organizational structure, such as Kurdistan Workers' Party ( _ku. Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan, PKK); Freedom and Democracy Congress of Kurdistan ( _ku. Kongreya Azadî û Demokrasiya Kurdistanê, KADEK); Halu Meşru Savunma Kuvveti (HSK). Organization established front groups, including the Kurdistan Freedom Falcons ( _tr. Kürdistan Özgürlük Şahinleri), ( _ku. Teyrêbazên Azadiya Kurdistan, TAK), which claim responsibility for attacks against civilians, but in reality, the organization directs the operations of the fronts. Organization adapted a decentralized structure which branches adapted different names for effectiveness.Jongerden, Joost. " [http://www.personal.ceu.hu/PolSciJournal/CEU_PolSciJournal_III_1.pdf PKK] ," CEU Political Science Journal. Vol. 3, No. 1, page 127-132.] The armed wing active in south-east Turkey, the People's Liberation Army of Kurdistan ( _ku. Arteshen Rizgariya Gelli Kurdistan, ARGK), used the People's Defence Forces ( _ku. Hêzên Parastina Gel, HPG). The organization held especially by a vassal or tenant to the major control over established structures such as the Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress, the Kurdistan People's Congress (KHK), and the People's Congress of Kurdistan. As of 30 April 2007, all the social arrangements, all the activities declared, using the listed names are classified as originating from the same organization (commonly known as the PKK) by the Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism of USA as published in Country Reports on Terrorism.

Also the Youth Council of Kurdistan (YCK), an establishment of the organization initially created on 25 October 1987, aims to organize and recruit the youth more systematically, extended to branches; Free Youth Movement of Kurdistan ( _ku. Tevgera Cîwanên Azad a Kurdistan, TECAK), The Independent Youth Movement in Turkey ( _tr. Bağımsız Gençlik Hareketi, BAGEH), Democratic Youth Movement in Iran, Independent Youth Movement in Iraq (TCM), Free Youth Movement in Syria (TCA), The Free Youth Movement (ÖGH) in Europe and in the Commonwealth of Independent State. [cite conference|last=Alkan|first=Necati|url=http://www.nato.hacettepe.edu.tr/nato/Nato/Papers/Alkan.Rev1.pdf|title=Youth and Terrorism: Example of PKK|conference=Political Violence, Organized Crimes, Terrorism and Youth|conferenceurl=http://www.nato.hacettepe.edu.tr/nato/PhaseI/main1.htm|month=13-14 September|year=2007|page=8|location=Ankara, Turkey]

History

In the early 1970s, the organization's core was called the "Ankara Democratic Patriotic Association of Higher Education" or "Apocular" ("Apoists"), which was made up largely of students, led by Abdullah Öcalan (nicknamed "Apo") in Ankara. The group soon moved its focus to large Kurdish population in south-east Turkey.

On 27 October, 1978, the group adapted the name Kurdistan Workers Party with the official release of the "Proclamation of Independence of PKK." The organization soon found itself in conflict with right-wing entities with its largely communist ideology. In 1979, organization attempted to assassinate Kurdish tribal leader Mehmet Celal Bucak as a propaganda-of-the-deed claiming "exploiting the peasants," and "collaborating with Turkey." This marked a period of intense urban warfare between radical political elements. The military coup largely ended this period, with members of the organization being subject to capital punishment, going to prison, or fleeing to Syria. On November 10, 1980, the Turkish Consulate in Strasbourg, France was bombed resulting a significant material damage but no injuries and operation claimed jointly by the ASALA and the organization, which they claimed to be the start of a "fruitful collaboration."cite web|url=http://www.tkb.org/Incident.jsp?incID=2735|author=MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base|title=Incident Profile: Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) and Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) attacked Diplomatic target (November 10, 1980, France)|accessdate=2007-04-17|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070930033518/http://www.tkb.org/Incident.jsp?incID=2735|archivedate=2007-09-30]

Starting in 1984, using the training camps located in Syria, the organization transformed itself into a paramilitary organisation and launched conventional attacks as well as continuing with the bombings against governmental installations, military and civilian targets, many of whom were connected to the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP), a multi-sector integrated regional development project based on the concept of sustainable development for more than nine million people living in the southeastern Anatolia region. During 1990s, the organization moved to a less centralized form, taking up operations in a variety of European and Middle Eastern countries and became a trans-nationalized organization. Following the collapse of the USSR, the PKK largely abandoned its Communist roots, attempting to better accommodate nationalistic views and Islamic beliefs. In the mid 1990s, it also began to shift from conventional bombing to suicide bombing, launching 15 such attacks between 1995 and 1999. Eleven of the fifteen suicide bombers were women.

In the late 1990s, the Turkish army began to gain the upper hand in its ground war with the organization and post-Cold War shifts in international politics resulted in the group losing much of its support among other states. In 1999, Öcalan was captured, prosecuted and sentenced to death. Turkey abolished the death penalty on 3 August 2002 as part of a raft of reforms aimed at preparing the country for European Union membership, and Öcalan was commuted to life imprisonment. [UNESCO. 2002. " [http://portal.unesco.org/es/ev.php-URL_ID=6606&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Death penalty abolished in Turkey] ". The new Courier n°1.] Öcalan took his case to the European Court of Human Rights which conclusion held that there had been violation of Article 6 (right to fair trial), as there was one military judge among six judges trying Abdullah Öcalan, there was no violation of Article 2 (right to life). [cite web|url= http://www.echr.coe.int/eng/Press/2003/march/Ocalanjudgeng.htm|title=Chamber Judgment In The Case Of Öcalan v. Turkey| accessdate=2007-10-22 |date= March 2003|publisher=European Court of Human Rights|archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20050210224238/http://www.echr.coe.int/eng/Press/2003/march/Ocalanjudgeng.htm|archivedate=2005-02-10] With downgraded security concerns, the Turkish parliament began a controlled process of dismantling the legal control, using the term "normalization" or "rapprochement" depending on the sides of the issue. A ban on publishing using Kurdish language (1983) was dropped in 1991, with more thorough reforms, such as the lifting of the ban on broadcasting in Kurdish, adopted in the 2000s with the decrease in PKK's activities.cite book
author = Ferhad Ibrahim, Gülistan Gürbey
year = 2000
isbn = 0312236298
title = The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Obstacles and Chances for Peace and Democracypn]

Following a call by the captured Öcalan for a peaceful solution, the PKK found itself blacklisted in many countries. Consequently, the PKK went through a series of changes and implemented a unilateral truce, which ended in 2003. [cite news|work=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-01|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3200907.stm|title=Kurdish rebels abandon truce|date=2003-09-02] On April 2, 2004, the Council of the European Union added the PKK to its list of terrorist organisations. Later that year, the US Treasury moved to freeze assets of branches of the PKK.

Since Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present, according to Turkey, Massoud Barzani, leader of the Kurdish region in northern Iraq, and US forces have not done enough to combat with the organization and secure the Iraqi-Turkish border, causing tensions between the Iraqi and Turkish governments. [cite web | title = Consul General's Speech on U.S.-Turkish Relations|date=2006-05-23| url=http://istanbul.usconsulate.gov/cg_speech_0523.html | accessdate = 2008-02-22 | year = 2008 ] [cite press release | title = MYTHS ABOUT THE PKK AND THE UNITED STATES| url=http://istanbul.usconsulate.gov/ralston_091906.html | accessdate = 2008-02-22 | publisher=Consulate General of the United States in Istanbul, Turkey |date=October 19, 2006 |author=Ralston, Joseph ] On the 17 October 2007, the Turkish parliament approved a military incursion into Iraq to pursue the PKK fighters. The vote for incursion won with an overwhelming 507 to 19. [cite news|title=Turkey approves Iraq incursion|work=CNN| date=2007-10-17|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/10/17/turkey.iraq/index.html] Action was delayed on request by the US government on the condition that "swift steps" were taken to deal with the militants. On December 16th, 2007, after the October 2007 clashes in Hakkari the Turkish Armed Forces started preparations for 2008 Turkish incursion into northern Iraq.

2008 to date

On 22 February 2008, the Turkish military carried out a major incursion into northern Iraq to attack PKK bases there. An estimated 10,000 Turkish troops were deployed for the incursion along with armoured vehicles and aircraft. [cite news | title=Turkey launches major Iraq incursion|work=CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/02/22/turkey.iraq/index.html|date=2008-02-23] The incursion sparked calls from the Iraqi and US governments for the incursion to end.

On 29 February, 2008 the Turkish military announced that the incursion was finished and pulled out of northern Iraq, claiming that they had achieved their objectives. The military claimed 240 PKK rebels killed and for the loss of 27 Turkish soldiers. [cite news | title=Iraqi incursion finished, Turkey says|work=CNN|date=2008-02-29|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/02/29/iraq.main/index.html]

After a terrorist attack in Istanbul on 27 July 2008, Turkish authorities blamed the PKK. Spokesmen for the organization emphatically denied being involved.

On 7 August 2008 the PKK claimed responsibility for an explosion that has halted the flow of oil through the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline. [cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c4836dca-64e1-11dd-af61-0000779fd18c.html?nclick_check=1
accessdate=2008-09-15
title=Kurds lay claim to blast on Azeri oil pipeline
work=Financial Times
date=2008-08-08
first=Alex
last=Barker]

Ideology

[
communist hammer and sickle] The organization originated in the 1970s from the radical left and drew its leaders, members from other existing leftish groups, mainly Dev-Genç.rp|127 The organization initially presented itself as part of the communist revolution. The organization's aims and objectives have evolved over time.

During 1980's, the organization was a secular insurgent political movement.rp|127 During 1980's the organization included and cooperated with other ethnic groups (including ethnic Turks) who were following the radical left. Following the collapse of the USSR, the PKK largely abandoned its communist roots, attempting to better accommodate nationalistic views and Islamic beliefs.

The organization emerged from the Workers Party of "Kurdistan" heritage. Initially the group aimed to establish a Kurdish nation separate from Turkey. Later this goal extended to Syria, Iraq and Iran. Organization fundamentally transformed from a party of Kurdistan to a party of Turkey with the time.rp|129 The profound shift implied a recognition of national sovereignty of "Republic of Turkey," within which the claim is made for regional autonomy, rather than a fight for national independence.rp129 This positional change was criticized as a method change rather than a real ideological change.

In 1999, following the capture of Ocalan, organization announced a "peace initiative," and spoken more often about cultural or linguistic rights. The group's hard-line militant wing took control and renounced the self-imposed cease-fire with the turn of 2004. Besides the activities towards Turkey, on 17 July 2005, one of the chief executive of the PKK, Hasan Özen who wanted to leave the organization, was murdered in Austria. In Diyarbakir, on 6 July 2005, the organization killed Hikmet Fidan the former founder of the People’s Democratic Party (HADEP), a legal branch of the PKK, after he split from the PKK and formed an alternative organization called PWD with Osman Ocalan.

Currently, it is labeled as an ethnic secessionist organization that uses terrorism and the threat of force against both civilian and military targets for the purpose of achieving its political goal.

Organization

The PKK has multiple heads in various West European countries. And like an octopus, it has tentacles in the form of fronts.Frank C. Urbancic, " [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/07/83999.htm Briefing on Release of 2006 Country Reports on Terrorism] ," U.S. Department of State, April 30, 2007] However, Abdullah Öcalan (1984-1999) was unchallenged leader of the organization. After the capture of Öcalan, authorities induced him to publicly plead for a ceasefire and for his own life at the court, which diminished his stature and credibility. [Bongar, Bruce Michael. "Psychology of Terrorism", page 97] Though serving life imprisonment, Öcalan is still considered the honorary leader and figure-head of the organization. He directs the PKK from his prison cell, through his lawyer. [cite news|url=http://www.unb.ca/bruns/9900/issue19/intnews/kurdish.html
accessdate=2008-10-08
title=Kurdish leader continues struggle from jail
date=2000-02-18
volume=133
issue=19
section=International
quote=...Ocalan sends messages to his guerrillas through his lawyers...
agency=Associated Press
work=Bruns International
publisher=Brunswickan Publishing Inc.]

Murat Karayilan have the control of the organization in practice, although undergone numerous conflicts between Cemil Bayik. Cemil Bayik beside Abdullah Ocalan, Kesire Yildirim Ocalan, and Hakki Karaer was one of the core leaders. Cemil Bayik’s military skills and leadership were criticized by Abdullah Ocalan during his 1999 trial. The organization appointed "Doctor Bahoz," the nom de guerre of Fehman Huseyin, a Syrian Kurd, in charge of the movement's military operations signifying the long-standing alliance between the organization and Damascus.Brandon, James. " [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2370250 The PKK and Syria's Kurds] ," "Global Terrorism Analysis", Jamestown Foundation Volume 5, Issue 3 (February 15, 2007).]

During it's highest point in the early 1990s the militant membership was around 17000. After the capture of Ocelan this number drastically decreased. The membership increased from 3,000 to more than 7,000 since 2003 invasion of Iraq. In 2008, the membership was 4,500-5,000 at the organization's camps in northern Iraq.

Training camps

The first training camp was established than in Syrian controlled Bekaa Valley in 1982, with the support of the Palestine Liberation Organization and Syria. [cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/studies3.htm
accessdate=2008-10-09
title=The Workers' Party of Kurdistan (PKK)
section=III. International Sources of Support
publisher=Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Foreign Affairs] cite news |first=Simon |last=Hooper |title=PKK's decades of violent struggle|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/10/10/pkk.profile/index.html|publisher=CNN|date= 2007-10-11|accessdate=2008-10-10 ] This main camp moved to north Iraq in 1998, under intensive pressure, after the Syria expelled Ocalan and shut down all camps established in the region. The organization moved its training camps to North Iraq where there was a vacuum of control after the Operation Provide Comfort. Instead one big training camp which could be easily destroyed, organization established many small camps. During this period organization set up a fully functioning enclave with training camps, storage facilities, and reconnaissance and communications centers.

In 2007 organization believed to have a number of camps strung out through the mountains that straddle the border between Turkey and Iraq, including in Sinaht, Haftanin, Kanimasi and Zap. The organization has two types of camps, the boarder camps that were used as forward bases from which militants infiltrate into Turkey. The units deployed there are highly mobile and the camps have only the minimum infrastructure. The camps in the Qandil Mountains have a more developed infrastructure—including a field hospital, electricity generators and a large proportion of the PKK's lethal and non-lethal supplies.Jenkins, Gareth. " [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2373722 Turkey Weighs Military Options Against PKK Camps in Iraq] ," "Global Terrorism Analysis", Volume 4, Issue 33 October 16, 2007.]

There are also training camps in other countries, the organization's training camp which was deep in the woods and indiscernible was dismantled near Eindhoven in the Netherlands and following raids resulted arrests and seize of materials in The Hague, Rotterdam, Eindhoven and Capelle aan den IJssel. [cite news |title= PKK Training Camp Dismantled Near Eindhoven, 38 Arrests |work=NIS, news bulletin |date= 3/11/04 |accessdate=2008-10-10|url=http://www.nisnews.nl/public/131104_1.htm ] There was another training camp at Belgium, which the organization uses training camps in Europe for political and ideological training. [" [http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=A/59/44(SUPP)&Lang=E Report Of The Committee Against Torture] ," United Nations OHCHR, 2004, pages 276-277.]

Sympathizers

The organization had sympathizer parties in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey beginning in early 1990s. The establishment of direct links to the organization has been a question. In sequence HEP/DEP/HADEP/DEHAP and the latest Kurdish nationalist Democratic Society Party (DTP) sympathizes with the organization and refuses to brand it as a terrorist group. As of June 2007 report by the European Union Institute for Security Studies stated that "It is an obvious secret that DTP is connected to PKK in a way and PKK is a terrorist group." [cite news|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php?id=8226 |work=World Bulletin |section=EU report|title=DTP is connected to PKK 'in a way'|date =2007-08-06|accessdate=2008-08-28]

The political organizations established in Turkey are banned to both propagate and support violence. As of 2008, there is calling for legal action against the DTP by the constitutional court. The constitution court found direct link with the HEP/DEP/HADEP with the organization and closed these parties. There are also sympathizer figures, members of these parties, which their material connection or propagation of violence has been questioned and some served time, such as Leyla Zana. [cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/6916207.asp?gid=180|title=Önderimiz 99'da İmralı'daydı|accessdate=2007-07-19|language=Turkish|work=Hürriyet|quote="in 99 our leader [Abdullah Öcalan, leader of the PKK] was in İmralı" which led the crowd to chant "Long live Chairman Apo" ( _ku. Bijî Serok Apo) the nickname of Öcalan.]

Activities

During it's establishment in the mid 1970s, amid violent clashes in the whole of Turkey, organization used classic terrorism methods, such as failed assassination of Mehmet Celal Bucak as a propaganda-of-the-deed. After the 1980 military coup the organization developed into a paramilitary organization using resources it acquired in Bekaa valley in part of ex-Syrian-controlled Lebanon. After 1984, PKK began to use Maoist theory of people's war.cite journal
url = http://www.oranim.ac.il/courses/meast/extra/RISE%20AND%20FALL%20THE%20PKK.htm
doi = 10.1016/S0030-4387(00)00057-0
author = Radu, Michael
journal = Orbis
volume = 45
issue = 1
pages = 47–63
month = Winter
year = 2001
title = The Rise and Fall of the PKK
accessdate = 2008-06-29] [cite web
url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/mar1999/pkk-m12.shtml
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=The politics of the PKK (Kurdish Workers Party): A balance sheet
author=Ute Reissner and Justus Leicht
work=World Socialist
publisher=ICFI
date=1999-03-12] There are three phases in this theory. The militant base during the initial years was coming from different sources, so the first two phases were diffused to each other.

1978-1984

In the first phase (1978-1984), the PKK tried to gain the support of the population. It attacked the machinery of government and distributed propaganda in the region. PKK tactics were based on ambush, sabotage, riots, protests, and demonstrations against the Turkish government. PKK has also been accused of violent attacks on individual civilians or residential areas (Kurds and non-Kurds alike), who refused to co-operate with the PKK or were suspected of collaborating with the Turkish authorities. During these years, the PKK fought a turf war against other predominantly Kurdish organisations in Turkey. The PKK effectively used the prison force to gain appeal among the population. [cite news
publisher=Zaman
language=Turkish
url=http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno=620819
accessdate=2008-07-09
title=Eski Dışişleri Bakanı Hikmet Çetin: PKK'nın temeli 12 Eylül'de atıldı
date=2007-12-03
work=Cihan News Agency
quote=PKK aslında nereden şiddetle çıktı. Bana göre Diyarbakır Cezaevi'nden, 12 Eylül'den sonra çıktı. Yani ortam, orada hazırlandı. Çıkış yeri orası. Orada işkenceden insanlar öldü. Sakat kalanlar Avrupa'ya gitti. Öyle bir ortamda.] [Immigration Appeals: 2nd - 3rd Quarter (2004), by Great Britain Immigration Appeal Tribunal] In the whole Turkey, this period was characterized by violent clashes which culminated in the 1980 military coup.

During this time, the organization argued that its violent actions were justified by the need to defend Kurds in the context of what it considered as the massive cultural suppression of Kurdish identity (including the 1983 Turkish Language Act Ban) and cultural rights carried out by other governments of the region.

1984-1999

In the second phase (1984-1999), which followed the return of civilian rule in 1983, escalating attacks were made on the government's military and vital institutions all over the country. The objective was to destabilise Turkish authority through a long, low-intensity confrontation. In addition to skirmishing with Turkish military and police forces and local village guards, the PKK has conducted suicide bombing on government and police installations, as well as at local tourist sites. Kidnapping and assassination against government officials and Kurdish tribal leaders who were named as puppets of the state were performed as well. Widespread sabotages were continued from the first stage. PKK performed kidnapping western tourists, primarily in Istanbul but also at different resorts. Its actions have taken place mainly in Turkey and against Turkish targets in other countries, although it has on occasions co-operated with other Kurdish nationalist paramilitary groups in neighboring states, such as Iraq and Iran.Citation
author = Cordesman, Anthony H.
year = 1999
title = Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction
isbn = 0275965287
publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group] PKK has also attacked Turkish diplomatic and commercial facilities across Western Europe. In effect, the Turkish state has led a series of counter-insurgency operations against the PKK, accompanied by political measures, starting with an explicit denunciation of separatism in the 1982 Constitution, and including proclamation of the state of emergency in various PKK-controlled territories starting in 1983 (when the military relinquished political control to the civilians). This series of administrative reforms against terrorism included in 1985 the creation of village guard system by the then prime minister Turgut Özal who is of partial Kurdish descent.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, in an effort to win increased support from the Kurdish peasantry, the PKK altered its leftist secular ideology to better accommodate and accept Islamic beliefs. The group also abandoned its previous strategy of attacking Kurdish civilians, focusing instead on government and tourist targets.cite web|url=http://www.tkb.org/Group.jsp?groupID=63|work=MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base|title=Group Profile: Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)|accessdate=2007-04-17|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080109074852/http://www.tkb.org/Group.jsp?groupID=63|archivedate=2008-01-09] In its campaign, the organization has been accused of carrying out atrocities against both Turkish and Kurdish civilians and its actions have been criticised by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. Actions of the Turkish state in the past have also been criticised by these same groups.

All in all, this low intensity conflict which has lasted more than thirty years has had a number of effects in the Turkish territory.

1999-current

In the third phase (1999-current), after capture of Öcalan, according to Maoist theory of people's war claims that the conventional fighting should be established to seize cities, overthrow the government and take control of the country. This stage has never achieved. In effect, after the capture of Öcalan, activities of the organization never reached to previous levels.

Since the 1999, the organization begin to use improvised explosive devices rather than direct confrontation.

Tactics

The areas in which the group operates are generally mountainous rural areas and dense urban areas. The mountainous terrain offers an advantage to members of the PKK by allowing them to hide in a network of caves and making military air operations, especially helicopter use, hazardous for the Turkish Armed Forces. While in urban areas, PKK members are often able to blend in with the local population.

Recruiting

Organization with it's Marxist ideology claim to generate equality of gender. At its establishment, included a small number of female militants, over time, however, this number has increased significantly and the early 1990s, 30 percent of its 17,000 armed militants were women.Ali Özcan, Nihat " [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2373638 PKK Recruitment of Female Operatives] ," "Global Terrorism Analysis", Jamestown Foundation, Volume 4, Issue 28, September 11, 2007.] The Civil Code in Turkey, established as Ataturk's reforms, has accepted men and women as equals since 1926, it was not possible to accomplish this ideal in practice for Kurdish rural areas where tribal structure and a male-dominant oppressive environment that considered women as second-class citizens. The organization increased its number of members through the recruitment of women from different social structures and environments, such as women from families that migrated to several European countries after 1960 as guest workers( _de. Gastarbeiter). It was reported that 88% of the subjects claimed that equality was a key objective, there was no equality within the organization. In 2007, approximately 1,100 of total members (4,500-5,000) were comprised of women.

The organization used children within its militant force. [cite web|url=http://www.sagbilens.ankara.edu.tr/ithesis.php?id=2249
accessdate=2008-07-11 |title=Thesis details |first=Uğur |last=Esentur |publisher=Ankara Üniversity, Health Sciences Institute
language=Turkish Electronic copy available from [http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/fmi/xsl/tez/listevedetay_liste.xsl?-db=TezVT&-lay=web_arama&-max=20&-token.error=liste.xsl&AdSoyad=U%C4%9Fur%20Esentur&-find=&-token.d=1 YOK] after [http://tez2.yok.gov.tr/ signing up] .] 86% percent of who had joined the organization was to bolster their families incomes following offers that it would provide for their families in return.cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/6673759.asp?gid=180|title=Hepsi kandırılmış çocuklar|language=Turkish|work=Hürriyet|author=University of Ankara|accessdate=2007-06-09] All of the new recruites reported that these offers were not fulfilled. 80% of those surveyed also reported that they had actively stopped other family members—usually younger brothers—from joining the organization too. 60% of those surveyed had an education level below high school level.

When asked why they stayed in the organization, two thirds stated that they were afraid of being caught as reprisals are not just limited to physical harm towards the militant; their families would be at risk as well. Five percent said that it was from fear of punishment by the Republic of Turkey.

Instruments

In July 2007, the weapons captured between 1984-2007 from the PKK operatives and their origins published by the Turkish General Staff indicates that the operatives delete some of the serial numbers from their weapons. The total number of weapons and the origins for traceable ones were:cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/6922630.asp?gid=180|title=İşte PKK'nın silahlarının listesi|accessdate=2007-07-19|language= Turkish|work=Hürriyet]

Four members of the organization, who handed themselves over to authorities after escaping from camps in northern Iraq, claimed they had seen two U.S. armored vehicles deliver weapons, which was widely reported and further stoked suspicions about U.S. policy in Iraq. [cite web|url=http://turkey.usembassy.gov/askarchives.html |work=Ask the Ambassador Archives |title=I saw on TV that PKK terrorists are saying that the US is supplying weapons to PKK members in camps in Kandil Mountain. How do you respond? |publisher=Embassy of the United States |accessdate=2008-07-23 |date=2008-07-23 |first=Didem |last=Ozbag ] US envoy denied these claims. [cite news |url=http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=77478 |title=US envoy denies PKK claims |work=Turkish Daily News |date=2007-07-04 |accessdate=2008-07-23 ] The arms were claimed to be part of Blackwater Worldwide arms smuggling allegations. The probe of organization's weapons and the investigation of Blackwater employees were connected." [http://www.tehrantimes.com/index_View.asp?code=153482 Blackwater admits employees illegally sold weapons] ," "Tehran Times", September 23, 2007.]

The organization has been using mines. [http://www.icbl.org/lm/country/turkey Turkey] , Landmine Monitor, 2006.] Use of these mines has led to civilian deaths, in part due to accidental triggering by civilian trucks and buses rather than the intended military armoured vehicles.

Resources

Funding

The organization's annual budget has been estimated at $86 million USD. [cite news
url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/IJ25Ak03.html
first=Sami
last=Moubayed
accessdate=2008-07-11
work=Asia Times Online
title=No end in sight of the Kurdish fight
date=2007-10-24]

The PKK receives a proportion of its funding in the form of private donations, from both organisations and individuals from around the world. Some of these supporters are Kurdish businessmen in south-eastern Turkey, sympathisers in Syria and Iran, and Europe. Parties and concerts are organized by branch groups.cite web|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060630045559/http://www.ict.org.il/organizations/orgdet.cfm?orgid=20| archivedate=2006-06-30|url=http://www.ict.org.il/organizations/orgdet.cfm?orgid=20|publisher=International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT) |title= Kurdistan Worker's Party (PKK)|work=Counter-Terrorism Studies|accessdate=2007-09-01] Additionally, it is believed that the PKK earns money through the sale of various publications, as well as receiving revenues from legitimate businesses owned by the organization.cite web|title=Terrorism > Financing of its activities|url=http://www.mfa.gov.tr/financing-of-its-activities.en.mfa|accessdate=2008-07-10|publisher=Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Foreign Affairs] Besides affliate organizations, there are sympathizer organizations such as the Confederation of Kurdish Associations in Europe (KON-KURD, headquartered in Brussels) and the International Kurdish Businessmen Union (KAR-SAZ, in Rotterdam) which constatntly exchanges information and perform legitimate or semi-legitimate commercial activities and donations.

The Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) also has been financing its separatist movement by extorting narcotics traffickers and engaging in the trade themselves. The PKK is heavily involved in the European drug trade, especially in Germany and France. [cite web
url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=52491
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=Drug Smuggling As Main Source of PKK Terrorism
date=2008-02-16
work=Journal of Turkish Weekly
first=Sedat
last=Laciner] French law enforcement estimates that the PKK smuggles 80% of the heroin in Paris. [cite web | first= Frank J. |last=Cilluffo | title = The Threat Posed from the Convergence of Organized Crime, Drug Trafficking, and Terrorism | work= Homeland Security | publisher= George Washington University|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~dhs/congress/dec13_00.html | accessdate = 2008-02-22 | date=2000-12-13] The British Foreign Office has made a similar estimate for Britain. [cite news|work=BBC|accessdate=2008-06-26|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4305692.stm|title=Turkey at the drugs crossroads|first=Sarah|last=Rainsford|date=2005-10-06]

Human

According to information provided by the Intelligence Resource Program of the Federation of American Scientists the strength of the organization in terms of human resources consists of approximately 4,000 to 5,000 militants of whom 3,000 to 3,500 are located in northern Iraq. [cite web
url=http://fas.org/irp/world/para/pkk.htm
title=Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)
work=Federation of American Scientists
accessdate=2008-07-23
date=2004-05-21
first=John
last=Pike]

A study carried out by the Counter-Terrorism and Operations Department of Directorate General for Security over a sample of files about people convicted of being a terrorist under Turkish laws including 262 militants from the organization has found that 54% of the members are aged 14 to 25, 34% 26 to 37 and 12% 38 to 58. University graduates make up 11 % of the members, high school graduates 16 %, secondary school graduates 13 %, primary school graduates 39%, literate non-graduates 12% and illiterates 9%. [cite news
url=http://www.zaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=130015
title=Survey: Over 50 percent of PKK terrorists below 25
work=Zaman
accessdate=2008-07-23
date=2007-12-25 ]

International

At the height of its campaign, the organization received support from many countries. The level support given have changed through out this period.

Support of Syria, [cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/1998/int/980330/europe.a_hellenic_haven.19.html|title=A Hellenic Haven|first=Massimo|last=Calabresi|work=Time|accessdate=2007-10-22] From early 1979 to 1999 Syria had provided valuable safe havens to PKK in the region of Beqaa Valley. After the undeclared war between Turkey and Syria, Syria placed restrictions on PKK activity on its soil. Turkey is expecting positive developments in its cooperation with Syria in the long term, but even during the course of 2005, there were PKK operatives of Syrian nationality operating in Turkey.

Support of Iran; [cite book| title =Turkey: facing a new millennium: Coping with Intertwined Conflicts (Europe in Change)|first=Amikam|last=Nachmani| publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=0719063701 | year = 2003 ] page number Iran listed PKK as a terrorist organization after Iran's supply of resources to the PKK began to be used on its own soil. Iran provided PKK with supplies in the form of weapons and funds.

Support of Greece; retired Greek L.T. General Dimitris Matafias and retired Greek Navy Admiral Antonis Neksasis had visisted organization's Mahsun Korkmaz base camp in Bakaa valley in October 1988 along with parliamentarians from the panhellenic Socialist movement (PASOK). At the time it was reported that the general has assumed responsibility for training. Greeks also dispatched arms through Greek Cypriot administration.Gunter, Michael M. "The Kurds and the Future of Turkey", page 110] In December 1993, Greek European affairs minister Theodore Pangaios was quoted saying "we must supportive of the Kurdish people to be free". Greece declained to join Germany and France including other eleven memebers at the EU to ban the organization.Gunter, Michael M. "The Kurds and the Future of Turkey", page 111] During the 1990s, Greece supplied the rebels. [cite news|work=BBC News|accessdate=2007-09-01|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/358115.stm|title=Ocalan: Greeks supplied Kurdish rebels|date=1999-06-02]

Support of Republic of Cyprus was brought in question when Abdullah Öcalan was caught with a Cypriot passport , a nationalist reporter.

The support of paramilitary groups; The organization developed links with paramilitary groups among other ethnic groups which has harboured historic grievances against Turkey such as the ethnic Armenian ASALA,cite web
url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/23436-terror-russia
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=Roots of Islamic Terrorism: How Communists Helped Fundamentalists
work=Global Politician
date=2007-09-11
first=Antero
last=Leitzinger] as well as groups which shared its left-wing nationalist ideology such as the Palestine Liberation Organisation, ETA, and, to a lesser degree, the Provisional Irish Republican Army. Through the large Kurdish immigration in Germany, it has also formed close contacts with violent left-wing political groups in that country.

Support of the Soviet Union;cite journal
doi = 10.1016/S0030-4387(00)00056-9
last = Cornell
first = Svante E
journal = Orbis
volume = 45
issue = 1
pages = 31–46
year = 2001
title = The Kurdish Question in Turkish Politics
accessdate = 2008-06-29] According to the former KGB-FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko, who was assassinated in 2006, PKK's leader Abdullah Ocalan was among the terrorists trained by KGB-FSB. [cite news
url=http://www.chechenpress.co.uk/english/news/2005/07/11/01.shtml
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=The originator of the acts of terrorism in London was standing near Tony Blair
date=2007-05-11
work=Chechen Press
archiveurl=http://www.indymedia.org.uk/en/regions/london/2005/07/318875.html
archivedate=2007-05-19] As of 2008, Russia still is not among the states that list PKK as a terrorist group.

Support of UK; TV broadcast for five years in UK, until its licence was revoked by the regulators Independent Television Commission (ITC) in 1999 due to a breach of ITC guidelines and perceived pro-PKK bias.

Support of various Europe states; Despite Brussels designation of the organization as a terrorist organization, the EU continues to permit the broadcasting of organization's networks on the Hot Bird 3 satellite owned by the French company Eutelsat. MEDYA TV started transmissions from studios in Belgium via a satellite uplink from France. MEDYA TV's licence was revoked by the French authorities. A few weeks later Roj TV began transmissions from Denmark. It has also been argued that the Netherlands and Belgium have supported the PKK by allowing its training camps to function in their respective territories. On November 22 1998, Hanover's criminal police reported that three children had been trained by the PKK for guerrilla warfare in camps in the Netherlands and Belgium. [ [http://www.globalmarch.org/resourcecentre/world/belgium.pdf GlobalMarch report on Belgium] ] After the death of Theo van Gogh, with increasing attention on domestic security concerns, the Dutch police raided the 'PKK paramilitary camp' in the Dutch town of Liempde and arrested 29 people in November 2004. [cite news | work=Expatica| title = Dutch police raid 'PKK paramilitary camp' | url=http://www.expatica.com/nl/articles/news/dutch-police-raid-pkk-paramilitary-camp-13898.html | accessdate = 2008-07-22 | date=2004-11-12 ] Denmark allows Kurdish satellite television stations (such as ROJ-TV), which Turkey claims has links with the PKK, to operate in Denmark and broadcast into Turkey. [cite news| title = Denmark, again? Now it's under fire for hosting Kurdish TV station. | work=Christian Science Monitor| url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0421/p01s01-woeu.html | accessdate = 2008-02-22 | date=2006-04-21]

Various PKK leaders, including Hidir Yalcin, Riza Altun, Zubeyir Aydar, and Ali Haydar Kaytan all lived in Europe and moved freely. The free movement was archived by the strong ties with influential persons. Danielle Mitterrand, the wife of the former President of France, had active connections during the 90s with elements of the organization's leadership that force a down graded relationships between these states.cite book|title=The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in the 1990s: Its Impact on Turkey and the Middle East|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|year=1996|isbn=0813119995|last=Olson|first=Robert W|authorlink=Robert W. Olson|quote=...President Mitterand's, admittedly estranged wife Danielle. So bad had ties [Franch-Turkey] been at one stage that formal relations had been down graded to the level of charge d'affaires.|page=122] Ali Rıza Altun, a suspected key figure with an Interpol arrest warrant in his name, after harboring him for some time Austria arranged a flight to Iraq. . Turkish foreign minister Abdullah Gül summoned the Austrian ambassador and condemned Austria's action.cite web|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/dunya/6915035.asp?gid=180|title=Avusturya teröristi uçakla Irak'a gönderdi|work=Hürriyet|accessdate=2007-07-18|language=Turkish] On September 30 1995, While Öcalan was at Syria, Damascus opened contact with high ranking German CDU MP Heinrich Lummer and German intelligence officials.

The Chief of the Turkish General Staff during 2007, General Yaşar Büyükanıt, stated that even though the international struggle had been discussed on every platform and even though organizations such as the UN, NATO, EU make statements of serious commitment, to this day the necessary measures had not been taken. According to Büyükanıt; "this conduct on one side has encouraged the terrorists, on the other side it assisted in widening their [the terrorists] activities. The most distressful part of it is that many of the European countries being a member of NATO, an organization that had announced that terrorism was the greatest threat to itself.cite news|title=PKK'ya yardım eden NATO üyesi Avrupa ülkeleri var|language=Turkish|work=Hürriyet|date=2007-05-22|language=Turkish| url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/6560384.asp?gid=180] " Sedat Laciner, of the Turkish think tank ISRO, says that US support of the PKK undermines the US war on terrorism. [cite web
url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/editorial.php?id=29
title=The West and Terrorism: PKK as a Privileged Terrorist Organization
work=Journal of Turkish Weekly
publisher=International Strategic Research Organization
accessdate=2008-06-29
date=2006-05-14
first=Sedat
last=Laciner] Seymour Hersh claimed that the U.S. supported PEJAK, the Iranian branch of the PKK. [cite news
url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/11/27/061127fa_fact?currentPage=all
first=Seymour
last=Hersh
accessdate=2008-06-29
title=The Next Act
date=2007-11-26
quote=In the past six months, Israel and the United States have also been working together in support of a Kurdish resistance group known as the Party for Free Life in Kurdistan.
work=The New Yorker] The head of the PKK's militant arm, Murat Karayilan, claimed that Iran attempted to recruit the PKK to attack coalition forces, adding that Kurdish guerrillas have launched a clandestine war in north-western Iran, ambushing Iranian troops.cite news | title = Kurdish guerillas launch clandestine war in Iran |work=Daily Telegraph| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1562707/Kurdish-guerillas-launch-clandestine-war-in-Iran.html | accessdate = 2008-02-22 | date=2007-09-10 | author=McElroy, Damien]

Effects

As a self-styled revolutionary left-wing organization, the PKK has cited "mass violence by the Turkish state on the Kurd identity" to justify its activities.Fact|date=June 2008 The main goal of its activities was to alienate the people from the state by pushing security forces into more and more overt and repressive counter-measures. The Political-Justice section extends the results of this ideology and methods of the democratic processes and the justice system in Turkey. In a democratic system, an ideology that questions the state's legitimacy, will of its population and its security apparatus was difficult to be accepted as a political view, which was shaped under HEP/DEP/HADEP story. Turkish government authorities did not negotiate with the organization, so regional NGOs there were no communication channels between the sides. The ill-formed language ban of 1983 and Terrorism Act of 1991 were significant events. Also, amnesties were interesting events during the conflict time, as each amnesty gave more human resources to the organization. The prison as a rehabilitation concept was a failure. The people who were jailed for non-violent activities were becoming militants during their jail time. Government's military operations against the prisons were the highest point in this failure.

As a revolutionary left-wing organization, the PKK perceived Turkish society as one that was deformed by capitalism and imperialism. The PKK unleashed its aggression on enemies spanning all classes (farmers, business, etc.) and those that it considered puppets of the state. The cost of the PKK's actions are significant. PKK had drastic effects on regional economy, as targeted infrastructure of the region. Regions' inability to join the economical activities were associated with the work force, costs (insurance premiums, facility costs, loss of trained personnel etc.), and productivity (loss of work time, travel restrictions, inability to move rapidly etc). The region has had a very high historical tourism potential and it has been dormant because of the terrorism threat for many years.

The integration into social and economical activities are developed within the education system. Educational activities were targeted by the PKK. Because the majority of the people are very resilient to the effects of political violence, young people form a high risk group because of their undeveloped personalities. The effects of political violence on the newer generations is an important issue because, at the moment, the new generation in areas affected by the conflict have no experience living under what would be considered normal conditions.

This conflict became part with the negotiations between Turkey and the European Union (EU) about its eventual integration to the EU.

Toll

More than 37,000 people have died since the beginning of the PKK's armed struggle in 1984. [cite news| title=Kurdish rebels kill Turkey troops| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6537751.stm| date=2007-04-08| accessdate=2008-02-23|work=BBC] According to Denise Natali, the Turkish Armed Forces have destroyed some 8000 Kurdish communities and created 3 to 4 million refugees in the process. [Natali, Denise. "The Kurds and the State". Syracuse University Press, 2005, pg. 108.]

According to official figures released by the Turkish military for the 1984-2008 period:cite news|url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/9914612.asp?gid=0&srid=0&oid=0&l=1
accessdate=2008-09-17
title=Bir dönemin acı bilançosu
work=Hürriyet
date=2008-09-16
language=Turkish]

* 32,000 militants have been killed.
* 14,000 militants have been captured alive.
* 5,560 civilians have been killed.
* 6,482 soldiers have been killed.

According to a July 1998 article in "Le Monde diplomatique", the conflict has weighed heavily on the Turkish state's budget. In 1993, a sum of $70m was allocated from the prime minister’s secret funds. According to government inspector Kutlu Savaş, this sum was used mainly for procuring weapons and anti-terrorist equipment from Israel and for external operations. Irregular units in the conflictual zones have had to find ways to finance themselves, including racketeering and secret funding. Sedat Bucak has been alleged by the French newspaper to have under his orders 20,000 men, while the village guards pro-government Kurdish militias created in the mid-1980s would number to a total of 64,000.cite news|url=http://mondediplo.com/1998/07/05turkey |title=Turkey’s pivotal role in the international drug trade|work=Le Monde diplomatique|date=1998-07-05|last=Nezan|first=Kendal]

Footnotes

References

Further reading

* cite web
url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/articles.php?id=217
accessdate=2008-06-29
work=Journal of Turkish Weekly
title=Chronology of the Important Events in the World/PKK Chronology (1976-2006)
publisher=International Strategic Research Organization
date=2007-05-27