Yttrium

Yttrium (pronEng|ˈɪtriəm) is a chemical element with symbol Y and atomic number 39. It is a silvery-metallic transition metal chemically similar to the lanthanoids and has historically been classified as a rare-earth element. Yttrium is almost always found combined with the lanthanoids in rare-earth minerals and is never found in nature as a free element. Its only stable isotope, ⁸⁹Y, is also its only naturally occurring isotope.

In 1787, Carl Axel Arrhenius found a new mineral near Ytterby in Sweden and named it "ytterbite", after the village. Johan Gadolin discovered yttrium's oxide in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and Anders Gustaf Ekeberg named the new oxide "yttria". Elemental yttrium was first isolated in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler.

The most important use of yttrium compounds is in making phosphors, such as the red ones used in television cathode ray tube displays and in LEDs. Other uses include the production of electrodes, electrolytes, electronic filters, lasers and superconductors; various medical applications; and as traces in various materials to enhance their properties. Yttrium has no known biological role. Exposure to yttrium compounds can cause lung disease in humans.

Characteristics

Properties

Yttrium is a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous and highly crystalline transition metal in group 3. As expected by periodic trends, it is less electronegative than its predecessor in the group, scandium, more electronegative than its successor in the group, lutetium, and less electronegative than the next member of period 5, zirconium.Hammond] Yttrium is the first d-block element in the fifth period.

The pure element is relatively stable in air in bulk form, due to passivation resulting from the formation of a protective oxide (chem|Y|2|O|3) film on its surface. This film can reach a thickness of 10 µm when yttrium is heated to 750 °C in water vapor. When finely divided, however, yttrium is very unstable in air; shavings or turnings of the metal can ignite in air at temperatures exceeding 400 °C.Husted 2003, "yttrium"] Yttrium nitride (YN) is formed when the metal is heated to 1,000 °C in nitrogen.

imilarity to the lanthanoids

The similarity of yttrium to the lanthanoids is so strong that the element has historically been grouped with them as a rare earth element,IUPAC 2005] and is always found in nature together with them in rare earth minerals.Emsley 2001, p. 498]

Chemically, yttrium resembles these elements more closely than its neighbor in the periodic table, scandium,Daane 1968, p. 810] and if its physical properties were plotted against atomic number then it would have an apparent number of 64.5 to 67.5, placing it between the lanthanoids gadolinium and erbium.Daane 1968, p. 815]

It often also falls in the same range for reaction order, resembling terbium and dysprosium at its chemical reactivity. Yttrium is so close in size to the so-called 'Yttrium group' of heavy lanthanoid ions that in solution, it behaves as if it were one of them.harvnb|Greenwood|1997|p=945]

One of the few notable differences between the chemistry of yttrium and that of the lanthanoids is that yttrium is almost exclusively trivalent, whereas about half of the lanthanoids have valences other than three.Daane 1968, p. 817]

Compounds and reactions

As a trivalent transition metal, yttrium forms various inorganic compounds, generally in the oxidation state of +3, by giving up all three of its valence electrons.harvnb|Greenwood|1997|p=948] A good example is yttrium(III) oxide (chem|Y|2|O|3), also known as yttria, a six-coordinate white solid.harvnb|Greenwood|1997|p=947]

Yttrium forms a water-insoluble fluoride, hydroxide, and oxalate, but its bromide, chloride, iodide, nitrate and sulfate are all soluble in water. The Y³⁺ ion is colorless in solution because of the absence of d and f electron shells.

Water readily reacts with yttrium and its compounds to form hydrogen gas and chem|Y|2|O|3. Concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric acids do not rapidly attack yttrium, but other strong acids do.

With halogens, yttrium forms trihalides such as yttrium(III) fluoride (chem|YF|3), yttrium(III) chloride (chem|YCl|3), yttrium(III) bromide (chem|YBr|3) at temperatures above roughly 200 °C. Similarly, carbon, phosphorus, selenium, silicon and sulfur all form binary compounds with yttrium at elevated temperatures.

Organoyttrium chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon–yttrium bonds. A few of these are known to have yttrium in the oxidation state 0.Cloke 1993] Schumann 2006] (The +2 state has been observed in chloride melts,Mikheev 1992] and +1 in oxide clusters in the gas phase.Kang 2005] ) Some trimerization reactions were observed by using organoyttrium compounds as catalysts. These compounds use chem|YCl|3 as a starting material, which in turn is obtained from chem|Y|2|O|3 and concentrated hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride. [Turner 1920, p. 492] [Spencer 1919, p. 135]

Hapticity is how a group of contiguous atoms of a ligand are coordinated to a central atom; it is indicated by the Greek character "eta", η. Yttrium complexes were the first examples of complexes where carboranyl ligands were bound to a d⁰-metal center through a η⁷-hapticity. Vaporization of the graphite intercalation compounds graphite–Y or graphite–chem|Y|2|O|3 leads to the formation of endohedral fullerenes such as Y@C₈₂. Electron spin resonance studies indicated the formation of Y³⁺ and (C₈₂)³⁻ ion pairs. The carbides Y₃C, Y₂C, and YC₂ can each hydrolyze to form hydrocarbons.

Nucleosynthesis and isotopes

Yttrium in the Solar System was created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process (~72%), but also by the r-process (~28%).Pack 2007] The r-process consists of rapid neutron capture of lighter elements during supernova explosions. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars.harvnb|Greenwood|1997|pp=12–13]

Yttrium isotopes are among the most common products of the nuclear fission of uranium occurring in nuclear explosions and nuclear reactors. In terms of waste management, the most important yttrium isotopes are ⁹¹Y and ⁹⁰Y, with half-lives of 58.51 days and 64 hours, respectively. The first is formed directly from fission, while the latter, despite its short half-life, is in secular equilibrium with its long-lived parent isotope, strontium-90 (⁹⁰Sr) with a half-life of 29 years.

All group 3 elements have an odd number of protons and therefore have few stable isotopes.harvnb|Greenwood|1997|p=946] Yttrium itself has only one stable isotope, ⁸⁹Y, which is also its only naturally occurring one. ⁸⁹Y is thought to be more abundant than it otherwise would be, due in part to the s-process which allows enough time for isotopes created by other processes to decay by electron emission (neutron → proton).Essentially, a neutron becomes a proton while an electron and antineutrino are emitted.] Such a slow process tends to favor isotopes with mass numbers (A = protons + neutrons) around 90, 138 and 208, which have unusually stable atomic nuclei with 50, 82 and 126 neutrons, respectively.This stability is thought to result from very low neutron cross-sections harv|Greenwood|1997|pp=12—13. Electron emission of isotopes with those mass numbers is simply less prevalent due to this stability, resulting in them having a higher abundance.] CRC 2008, v.4, p. 41] ⁸⁹Y has a mass number close to 90 and has 50 neutrons in its nucleus.

At least 32 synthetic isotopes of yttrium have been observed, ranging in mass number from 76 to 108.harvnb|NNDC|2008] The least stable of these is ¹⁰⁶Y with a half-life of >150 ns (⁷⁶Y has a half-life of >200 ns) and the most stable is ⁸⁸Y with a half-life of 106.626 days. Besides the isotopes ⁹¹Y, ⁸⁷Y, and ⁹⁰Y, with half lives of 58.51 days, 79.8 hours, and 64 hours, respectively, all the other isotopes have half lives of less than a day and most of those have half-lives of less than an hour.

Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or below 88 decay primarily by positron emission (proton → neutron) to form strontium (Z = 38) isotopes. Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or above 90 decay primarily by electron emission (neutron → proton) to form zirconium (Z = 40) isotopes. Isotopes with mass numbers at or above 97 are also known to have minor decay paths of β− delayed neutron emission.Audi 2003]

Yttrium has at least 20 metastable or excited isomers ranging in mass number from 78 to 102.Metastable isomers have higher-than-normal energy states than the corresponding non-excited nucleus and these states last until a gamma ray or conversion electron is emitted from the isomer. They are designated by an 'm' being placed next to the isotope's mass number.] Multiple excitation states have been observed for ⁸⁰Y and ⁹⁷Y. While most of yttrium's isomers are expected to be less stable than their ground state, ^78mY, ^84mY, ^85mY, ^96mY, ^98m1Y, ^100mY, and ^102mY have longer half-lives than their ground states, as these isomers decay by beta decay rather than isomeric transition.

History

In 1787, army lieutenant and part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock in an old quarry near the Swedish village of Ytterby (now part of the Stockholm Archipelago). Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten,Emsley 2001, p. 496] he named it "ytterbite""Ytterbite" was named after the village it was discovered near, plus the -ite ending to indicate it was a mineral.] and sent samples to various chemists for further analysis.van der Krogt 2005]

Johan Gadolin at the University of Åbo identified a new oxide or "earth" in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in 1794. [Gadolin 1794] Stwertka 1998, p. 115 says that the identification occurred in 1789 but is silent on when the announcement was made. van der Krogt 2005 cites the original publication, with the year 1794, by Gadolin.] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed this in 1797 and named the new oxide "yttria".harvnb|Greenwood|1997|p=944] In the decades after Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within, which in this case would have been "yttrium".Earths were given an -a ending and new elements are normally given an -ium ending]

Carl Gustav Mosander found in 1843 that samples of yttria actually contained three oxides: yttria (white yttrium oxide), erbia (yellow terbium oxide) and the rose-colored terbia (erbium oxide).Confusingly, the names 'erbia' and 'terbia' were later swapped (van der Krogt 2005). The chemical names given in parenthesis indicate the compound Mosander actually discovered.] [Mosander 1843] A fourth oxide, ytterbium oxide, was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac. ["Britannica" 2005, "ytterbium"] New elements would later be isolated from each of those oxides, and each element was named, in some fashion, after Ytterby, the village near the quarry in which they were found (see ytterbium, terbium, and erbium). In the following decades, seven other new metals were discovered in "Gadolin's yttria". Since yttria was a mineral after all and not an oxide, Martin Heinrich Klaproth renamed it gadolinite in honor of Gadolin.

Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium chloride with potassium: [Heiserman 1992, p. 150] [Wöhler 1828] :YCl₃ + 3K → 3KCl + Y Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol Yt was used for the element, after which Y came into common use. [Coplen and Peiser 1998]

In 1987, yttrium barium copper oxide was found to achieve high-temperature superconductivity. It was only the second material known to exhibit this property,Wu "et al". 1987] and it was the first known material to achieve superconductivity above the (economically important) boiling point of nitrogen.T_c for YBCO is 93 K and the boiling point of nitrogen is 77 K.]

Occurrence

Abundance

[
Xenotime crystals contain yttrium.] Yttrium is found in almost all rare earth minerals, as well as some uranium ores, but it is never found in nature as a free element. [Lenntech, "yttrium"] About 31 ppm of the Earth's crust is yttrium,Cotton 2008] making it the 28th most abundant element there, and 400 times more common than silver. Yttrium is found in soil in concentrations between 10 and 150 ppm (dry weight average of 23 ppm) and in sea water at 9 ppt. Lunar rock samples collected during the Apollo program have a relatively high yttrium content.Stwertka 1998, p. 115]

Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is found in most, if not all, organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of humans. [Mac Donald "et al". 1952] There is normally as little as 0.5 milligrams found within the entire human body; human breast milk contains 4 ppm. Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm (fresh weight), with cabbage having the largest amount. With up to 700 ppm, the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.

Production

The chemical similarity of yttrium with the lanthanoids leads it to being enriched by the same processes and ends up in ores containing lanthanoids, forming rare earth minerals. A slight separation is recognized between the light (LREE) and the heavy rare earth elements (HREE) but this separation is never complete. Yttrium is concentrated in the HREE group even though it has a lower atomic mass.Morteani 1991] Kanazawaa 2006]

There are four main sources for REEs:Naumov 2008]
*Carbonate and fluoride containing ores such as the LREE bastnäsite ( [(Ce, La, etc.)(CO₃)F] ) contain an average of 0.1% of yttrium compared to the 99.9% for the 16 other REEs. The main source for Bastnäsite from the 1960s to the 1990s was the Mountain Pass mine in California, making the United States the lagest producer of REEs.
*Monazite ( [(Ce, La, etc.)PO₄] ), which is mostly phosphate, is a placer deposit of sand that is created by the transportation and gravitational separation of eroded granite. Monazite as a LREE ore contains 2% (or 3%)Stwertka 1998, p. 116] of yttrium. The largest deposits were found in India and Brazil in the early 19th century, making these two countries the largest producers of yttrium in the first half of that century.
*Xenotime, a REE phosphate, is the main HREE ore containing up to 60% of yttrium as yttrium phosphate (YPO₃). The largest mine for this mineral is the Bayan Obo deposit in China, making China the largest exporter for HREE since the closure of the Mountain Pass mine in the 1990s.
*Ion absorption clays or Lognan clays are the weathering products of granite and contain only 1% of REEs. The final ore concentrate can contain up to 8% of yttrium. Ion absorption clays are mostly mined in southern China.Zuoping 1996] Yttrium is also found in samarskite and fergusonite.Emsley 2001, p. 497]

It is difficult to separate yttrium from other rare earths. One method to obtain pure yttrium from the mixed oxide ores is to dissolve the oxide in sulfuric acid and fractionate it by ion exchange chromatography. With the addition of oxalic acid, the yttrium oxalate precipitates. The oxalate is converted into the oxide by heating under oxygen. By reacting the resulting yttrium oxide with hydrogen fluoride, yttrium fluoride is obtained.

Annual world production of yttrium oxide had reached 600 tonnes by 2001, with reserves estimated at 9 million tonnes. Only a few tonnes of yttrium metal are produced each year by reducing yttrium fluoride to a metal sponge with calcium magnesium alloy. The temperature of an arc furnace of above 1,600 °C is sufficient to melt the yttrium.Holleman 1985]

Applications

Consumer

Yttria (chem|Y|2|O|3) is widely used to make YVO₄:Eu and chem|Y|2|O|2|S:Eu phosphors that give the red color in color television picture tubes,Emsley 2001, p. 497 says that "Yttrium oxysulfide, doped with europium (III), is used as the standard red component in colour televisions".] though the red color itself is actually emitted from the europium while the yttrium collects energy from the electron gun and passes it to the phosphor.Daane 1968, p. 818] Yttria is also used as a sintering additive in the production of porous silicon nitride [US patent 5935888] and as a common starting material for both material science and for producing other compounds of yttrium.

Yttrium compounds are used as a catalyst for ethylene polymerization. As a metal, it is used on the electrodes of some high-performance spark plugs. [Carley 2000] Yttrium is also used in the manufacturing of gas mantles for propane lanterns as a replacement for thorium, which is radioactive. [Addison 1985]

Developing uses include yttrium-stabilized zirconia in particular as a solid electrolyte and as an oxygen sensor in automobile exhaust systems.

Garnets

Yttrium is used in the production of a large variety of synthetic garnets, [Jaffe 1951] and yttria is used to make yttrium iron garnets (YIG), which are very effective microwave filters. Yttrium iron, aluminium, and gadolinium garnets (e.g. Y₃Fe₅O₁₂ and Y₃Al₅O₁₂) have important magnetic properties. YIG is also very efficient as an acoustic energy transmitter and transducer. [Hosseinivajargah 2007] Yttrium aluminium garnet (chem|Y|3|Al|5|O|12 or YAG) has a hardness of 8.5 and is also used as a gemstone in jewelry (simulated diamond). Cerium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG:Ce) crystals are used as phosphors to make white LEDs. [US patent 6409938] [GIA 1995] [Kiss and Pressley 1996]

YAG, yttria, yttrium lithium fluoride (chem|LiYF|4), and yttrium orthovanadate (chem|YVO|4) are used in combination with dopants such as neodymium, erbium, ytterbium in near-infrared lasers.Kong et. al. 2005] Tokurakawa "et al". 2007] YAG lasers have the ability to operate at high power and are used for drilling into and cutting metal. The single crystals of doped YAG are normally produced by the Czochralski process. [Aleksandar "et al". 2002]

Material enhancer

Small amounts of yttrium (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce the grain sizes of chromium, molybdenum, titanium, and zirconium. [PIDC contributors] It is also used to increase the strength of aluminium and magnesium alloys. The addition of yttrium to alloys generally improves workability, adds resistance to high-temperature recrystallization and significantly enhances resistance to high-temperature oxidation (see graphite nodule discussion below).

Yttrium can be used to deoxidize vanadium and other non-ferrous metals. Yttria is used to stabilize the cubic form of zirconia for use in jewelry. [Berg 2002]

Yttrium has been studied for possible use as a nodulizer in the making of nodular cast iron which has increased ductility (the graphite forms compact nodules instead of flakes to form nodular cast iron). Yttrium oxide can also be used in ceramic and glass formulas, since it has a high melting point and imparts shock resistance and low thermal expansion characteristics. It is therefore used in camera lenses.

Medical and exotic

The radioactive isotope yttrium-90 is used in drugs such as Yttrium Y 90-DOTA-tyr3-octreotide and Yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan for the treatment of various cancers, including lymphoma, leukemia, ovarian, colorectal, pancreatic, and bone cancers.Emsley 2001, p. 495] It works by adhering to monoclonal antibodies, which in turn bind to cancer cells and kill them via intense β-radiation from the yttrium-90 (see Monoclonal antibody therapy). [Adams "et al". 2004]

Needles made of yttrium-90, which can cut more precisely than scalpels, have been used to sever pain-transmitting nerves in the spinal cord,Emsley 2001, p.496] and yttrium-90 is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in sufferers of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. [Fischer 2002]

A neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminium-garnet laser has been used in an experimental, robot-assisted radical prostatectomy in canines in an attempt to reduce collateral nerve and tissue damage, [Gianduzzo 2008] whilst the erbium-doped ones are starting to be used in cosmetic skin resurfacing.

Yttrium was used in the yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa₂Cu₃O₇, aka 'YBCO' or '1-2-3') superconductor developed at the University of Alabama and the University of Houston in 1987. This superconductor operated at 93 K, notable because this is above liquid nitrogen's boiling point (77.1 K). As the price of liquid nitrogen is lower than that of liquid helium, which has to be used for the metallic superconductors, the operating costs would decrease. The created material was a black and green, multi-crystal, multi-phase mineral. Researchers are studying a class of materials known as perovskites that are alternative mixtures of these elements, hoping to eventually develop a practical high-temperature superconductor.

Precautions

Water soluble compounds of yttrium are considered mildly toxic, while its insoluble compounds are non-toxic. In experiments on animals, yttrium and its compounds caused lung and liver damage, though toxicity varies with different yttrium compounds. In rats, inhalation of yttrium citrate caused pulmonary edema and dyspnea, while inhalation of yttrium chloride caused liver edema, pleural effusions, and pulmonary hyperemia.OSHA 2007]

Exposure to yttrium compounds in humans may cause lung disease. Workers exposed to airborne yttrium europium vanadate dust experienced mild eye, skin, and upper respiratory tract irritation—though this may have been caused by the vanadium content rather than the yttrium. Acute exposure to yttrium compounds can cause shortness of breath, coughing, chest pain, and cyanosis. NIOSH recommends a time-weighted average limit of 1 mg/m³ and an IDLH of 500 mg/m³. [NIOSH 2005] Yttrium dust is flammable.

Notes

References

Bibliography

* cite journal
journal = Cancer Research
volume =6 4
pages = 6200–6206
date = September 1, 2004
title = A Single Treatment of Yttrium-90-labeled CHX-A"–C6.5 Diabody Inhibits the Growth of Established Human Tumor Xenografts in Immunodeficient Mice
last = Adams | first= Gregory P.
coauthors= Shaller, Calvin C.; Dadachova, Ekaterina; Simmons, Heidi H.; Horak, Eva M.; Tesfaye, Abohawariat; Klein-Szanto, Andres J. P.; Marks, James D.; Brechbiel, Martin W.; Weiner, Louis M.
doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-03-2382
pmid = 15342405
* cite journal
last = Audi
first = Georges
title = The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties
journal = Nuclear Physics A
volume = 729
pages = 3–128
publisher = Atomic Mass Data Center
date = 2003
doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
* cite web
url = http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/amber/go340/students/berg/cz.html
title = Cubic Zirconia
accessdate = 2008-08-26
first = Jessica
last = Berg
publisher=Emporia State University
* cite encyclopedia
author = "Britannica" contributors
encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica
year = 2005
publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc
* cite journal
last = Carley
first = Larry
url = http://www.babcox.com/editorial/cm/cm120032.htm
title = Spark Plugs: What's Next After Platinum?
year = 2000
month = December
journal = Counterman
publisher = Babcox
accessdate = 2008-09-07
* cite journal
journal = Chem. Soc. Rev.
year = 1993
volume = 22
pages = 17–24
first = F. Geoffrey N.
last = Cloke
title = Zero Oxidation State Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, and the Lanthanides
doi = 10.1039/CS9932200017
* cite journal
journal = Pure Appl. Chem.
volume = 70
issue = 1
pages = 237–257
year = 1998
first = Tyler B.
last = Coplen
coauthors = Peiser, H. S.
title = History of the Recommended Atomic-Weight Values from 1882 to 1997: A Comparison of Differences from Current Values to the Estimated Uncertainties of Earlier Values (Technical Report)
publisher = IUPAC's Inorganic Chemistry Division Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances
doi = 10.1351/pac199870010237
* cite journal|title=Scandium, Yttrium & the Lanthanides: Inorganic & Coordination Chemistry|first=Simon A. |last=Cotton| doi= 10.1002/0470862106.ia211 |date= 2006-03-15
* Cite book
author = CRC contributors
editor = Lide, David R.
chapter = Zirconium
year = 2007–2008
title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
volume = 4
pages = 41
location = New York
publisher = CRC Press
id = 978-0-8493-0488-0
* cite book
last = Daane
first = A. H.
title = The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements
publisher = Reinhold Book Corporation
location = New York
year = 1968
editor = Hampel, Clifford A.
id = LCCN 68-29938
coauthors=
chapter = Yttrium
pages = 810–821
* cite book
title = Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements
last = Emsley
first=John
publisher = Oxford University Press
year = 2001
location = Oxford, England, UK
isbn = 0198503407
chapter = Yttrium
pages=495–498
* cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/strontium.html#healtheffects
title = Strontium: Health Effects of Strontium-90
accessdate = 2008-08-26
author = EPA contributors
publisher = US Environmental Protection Agency
date = 2008-07-31
* cite journal
first = M.
last = Fischer
coauthors = Modder, G.
title = Radionuclide therapy of inflammatory joint diseases
journal = Nuclear Medicine Communications
volume = 23
issue = 9
pages = 829–831
date = September 2002
doi = 10.1097/00006231-200209000-00003
* cite journal
first= Johan
last = Gadolin
authorlink = Johan Gadolin
title = Undersökning af en svart tung Stenart ifrån Ytterby Stenbrott i Roslagen."
journal = Kongl. Vetenskaps Academiens Nya Handlingar
volume = 15
year= 1794
pages= 137–155
* cite book
author =GIA contributors
publisher = Gemological Institute of America
title = GIA Gem Reference Guide
year = 1995
isbn = 0-87311-019-6
* cite journal
first = Troy
last = Gianduzzo
coauthors = Colombo Jr, Jose R.; Haber, Georges-Pascal; Hafron, Jason; Magi-Galluzzi, Cristina; Aron, Monish; Gill, Inderbir S.; Kaouk, Jihad H.
title = Laser robotically assisted nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy: a pilot study of technical feasibility in the canine model
journal = BJU International
volume = 102
issue = 5
pages = 598
publisher = Glickman Urological Institute| location = Cleveland
date = September 2008
doi = 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.07708.x
* cite journal
journal = Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society
year = 2002
volume = 67
issue = 4
pages = 91–300
doi = 10.2298/JSC0204291G
title = The growth of Nd: YAG single crystals
author = Golubović, Aleksandar V.; Nikolić, Slobodanka N.; Gajić, Radoš; Đurić, Stevan; Valčić, Andreja
* cite book
last = Greenwood
first = N. N.
coauthors = Earnshaw, A.
title = Chemistry of the Elements
edition = 2nd ed.
publisher = Butterworth-Heinemann
location = Oxford
year = 1997
isbn = 0-7506-3365-4
chapter = Chapter 20: Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanum and Actinium
pages = 944–953
ref = CITEREFGreenwood1997
* cite book
url = http://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elements.pdf
title = The Elements
chapter=Yttrium
author = Hammond, C. R.
accessdate = 2008-08-26
publisher = Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
pages = 4–33
format=pdf
* cite book
last = Heiserman
first = David L.
title = Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds
Location = New York
publisher = TAB Books
isbn = 0-8306-3018-X
chapter = Element 39: Yttrium
pages = 150–152
* cite book
publisher = Walter de Gruyter
year = 1985
edition = 91–100
issue =
pages = 1056–1057
isbn = 3-11-007511-3
title = Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie
first = Arnold F.
last = Holleman
coauthors = Egon Wiberg, Nils Wiberg
* cite journal
doi= 10.1016/j.jallcom.2006.05.023
title = Preparation and characterization of yttrium iron garnet (YIG) nanocrystalline powders by auto-combustion of nitrate-citrate gel
year= 2007
last= Vajargah
first = S. Hosseini
journal= Journal of Alloys and Compounds
volume= 430
issue =1–2
pages= 339–343
* cite web
last = Husted
first = Robert
url = http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/39.html
publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory
title = Yttrium
date = 2003-12-15
work = Periodic Table of the Elements
accessdate = 2008-08-02
* cite book
author = IUPAC contributors
title = Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations 2005
editor = Edited by N G Connelly and T Damhus (with R M Hartshorn and A T Hutton)
pages = 51
year = 2005
isbn = 0-85404-438-8
url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/books/rbook/Red_Book_2005.pdf
accessdate = 2007-12-17
publisher = RSC Publishing
* cite journal
url = http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM36/AM36_133.pdf
title = The role of yttrium and other minor elements in the garnet group
last = Jaffe
first = H.W.
journal = American Mineralogist
year = 1951
accessdate = 2008-08-26
pages = 133–155
format=pdf
* cite journal
journal = Journal of Alloys and Compounds
year = 2006
volume = 408–412
issue =
pages = 1339–1343
doi = 10.1016/j.jallcom.2005.04.033
title = Rare earth minerals and resources in the world
first = Yasuo
last = Kanazawaa
coauthors = Masaharu Kamitani
* cite journal
url = http://newjournal.kcsnet.or.kr/main/j_search/j_download.htm?code=B050237
title = Formation of Yttrium Oxide Clusters Using Pulsed Laser Vaporization
journal = Bull. Korean Chem. Soc.
year = 2005
volume = 26
issue = 2
pages=345–348
first = Weekyung
last = Kang
coauthor = E. R. Bernstein
* cite conference
last = Kiss
first = Z. J.
authorlink =
coauthors = Pressley, R. J.
title = Crystalline solid lasers
booktitle = Proceedings of the IEEE
conferenceurl = http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/tocresult.jsp?isYear=1966&isnumber=31089&Submit32=Go+To+Issue
pages = 1236–1248
volume = 54
issue = 10
publisher = IEEE
date = October 1966
location =
url = http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1447042
accessdate = 2008-08-16
id = issn: 0018-9219
* cite journal
first = J.
last = Kong
coauthors = Tang, D. Y.; Zhao, B.; Lu, J.; Ueda, K.; Yagi, H. and Yanagitani, T.
title = 9.2-W diode-pumped Yb:Y₂O₃ ceramic laser
journal = Applied Physics Letters
volume = 86
year = 2005
doi = 10.1063/1.1914958
pages = 116
* cite web
author = Lentech contributors
url = http://www.lenntech.com/periodic-chart-elements/y-en.htm
accessdate = 2008-08-26
title = yttrium
publisher = Lenntech
* cite journal
journal = Journal of Biological Chemistry
year = 1952
volume = 195
pages = 837–841
url = http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/195/2/837.pdf
title = The Skeletal Deposition of Yttrium
first = N. S.
last = MacDonald
coauthors = R. E. Nusbaum, G. V. Alexander
* cite journal
title = The anomalous stabilisation of the oxidation state 2+ of lanthanides and actinides
first = Mikheev
last = Nikolai B.
journal = Russian Chemical Reviews
volume = 61
issue = 10
year = 1992
doi = 10.1070/RC1992v061n10ABEH001011
pages = 990–998
* cite journal
journal = European Journal of Mineralogy; August; v.; no.; p.
year = 1991
volume = 3
issue = 4
pages = 641–650
url = http://eurjmin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/3/4/641
title = The rare earths; their minerals, production and technical use
first = Giulio
last = Morteani
coauthors =
* cite journal
journal=Annalen der Physik und Chemie
volume=60
year=1843
pages=297–315
title=Ueber die das Cerium begleitenden neuen Metalle Lathanium und Didymium, so wie über die mit der Yttererde vorkommen-den neuen Metalle Erbium und Terbium
first = Mosander
last = Carl Gustav
authorlink = Carl Gustav Mosander
issue = 2
language= German
doi = 10.1002/andp.18431361008
* cite journal
journal = Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals
year = 2008
volume = 49
issue = 1
pages = 14–22
doi = 10.1007/s11981-008-1004-6
title = Review of the World Market of Rare-Earth Metals
first = A. V.
last = Naumov
coauthors =
url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/y8925j378w4u4175/
doi_brokendate = 2008-08-29
* cite web
author = NIOSH contributors
url = http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0673.html
title = Yttrium
work = NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
date = September 2005
publisher = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
accessdate = 2008-08-03
* cite web
url = http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/
author = NNDC contributors
editor = Alejandro A. Sonzogni (Database Manager)
title = Chart of Nuclides
publisher = National Nuclear Data Center, Brookhaven National Laboratory
accessdate = 2008-09-13
year = 2008
location = Upton, New York
ref = CITEREFNNDC2008
* cite web
author = OSHA contributors
url = http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/yttriumandcompounds/recognition.html
title = Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Yttrium and Compounds
accessdate = 2008-08-03
publisher = United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration
date = 2007-01-11 (public domain text)
* cite journal
journal = Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
volume = 71
issue = 18
year = 2007
doi = 10.1016/j.gca.2007.07.010
title = Geo- and cosmochemistry of the twin elements yttrium and holmium
first = Andreas
last = Pack
coauthor = Sara S. Russell, J. Michael G. Shelley and Mark van Zuilen
pages = 4592–4608
* cite journal
author = PIDC contributors
title = Rare Earth metals & compounds
url = http://www.pidc.com/products_imaterials_oth.html
accessdate =2008-08-26
publisher = Pacific Industrial Development Corporation
* cite journal
journal = Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry
title = Scandium, Yttrium & The Lanthanides: Organometallic Chemistry
first = Herbert
last = Schumann
coauthors = Fedushkin, Igor L.
doi = 10.1002/0470862106.ia212
year = 2006
* Cite book
last = Spencer
first = James F.
year = 1919
title = The Metals of the Rare Earths
location = New York
publisher = Longmans, Green, and Co
isbn =
pages = 135
url = http://books.google.com/books?id=W2zxN_FLQm8C&pg=PA135&dq=%22Yttrium+chloride%22&lr=&as_brr=1
accessdate =2008-08-12
* cite book
title = Guide to the Elements
edition = Revised Edition
first = Albert
last = Stwertka
publisher = Oxford University Press
year = 1998
chapter = Yttrium
pages = 115–116
isbn = 0-19-508083-1
* cite journal
first = M.
last = Tokurakawa
coauthors = Takaichi, K.; Shirakawa, A.; Ueda, K.; Yagi, H.; Yanagitani, T. and Kaminskii, A. A.
title = Diode-pumped 188 fs mode-locked Yb³⁺:Y₂O₃ ceramic laser
journal = Applied Physics Letters
volume = 90
pages = 071101
year = 2007
doi=10.1063/1.2476385
* Cite book
last = Turner, Jr.
first = Francis M.
coauthors = Berolzheimer, Daniel D.; Cutter, William P.; Helfrich, John
year = 1920
title = The Condensed Chemical Dictionary
location = New York
publisher = Chemical Catalog Company
isbn =
pages = 492
url = http://books.google.com/books?id=y8y0XE0nsYEC&pg=PA492&dq=%22Yttrium+chloride%22&lr=&as_brr=1
accessdate = 2008-08-12
* Ref patent|country=US| number=4533317|status=patent| gdate=1985-08-06| title = Yttrium oxide mantles for fuel-burning lanterns|invent1=Addison, Gilbert J. |assign1= The Coleman Company, Inc.
*Ref patent |country=US |number=5734166 |status=patent |title=Low-energy neutron detector based upon lithium lanthanide borate scintillators| gdate=1998-03-31 |invent1=Czirr John B. |assign1=Mission Support Inc
*Ref patent |country=US |number=5935888 |status=patent |title= Porous silicon nitride with rodlike grains oriented |gdate=1999-08-10 |assign1=Agency Ind Science Techn (JP)| assign2=Fine Ceramics Research Ass (JP)
*Ref patent |country=US |number=6409938 |status=patent |title=Aluminum fluoride flux synthesis method for producing cerium doped YAG | gdate=2002-06-25 |invent1=Comanzo Holly Ann|assign1=General Electrics
* cite web
last = van der Krogt
first = Peter
title = 39 Yttrium
url = http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/elem/y.html
date = 2005-05-05
accessdate = 2008-08-06
work = Elementymology & Elements Multidict
* cite journal
journal = Annalen der Physik
volume = 89
issue = 8
pages = 577–582
title = Ueber das Beryllium und Yttrium
first = Friedrich
last = Wöhler
authorlink = Friedrich Wöhler
doi = 10.1002/andp.18280890805
year = 1828
* cite journal
first = M. K.
last = Wu
coauthors = Ashburn, J. R.; Torng, C. J.; Hor, P. H.; Meng, R. L.; Gao, L.; Huang, Z. J.; Wang, Y. Q. and Chu, C. W.
title = Superconductivity at 93 K in a New Mixed-Phase Y-Ba-Cu-O Compound System at Ambient Pressure
journal = Physical Review Letters
year = 1987
volume = 58
pages = 908–910
doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.908
* cite journal
journal = Chinese Journal of Geochemistry
year = 1996
volume = 15
issue = 4
pages = 344–352
doi = 10.1007/BF02867008
title = The behaviour of rare-earth elements (REE) during weathering of granites in southern Guangxi, China
first = Zuoping
last = Zheng
coauthors = Lin Chuanxian

External links

* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Y/index.html WebElements.com – Yttrium]
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/39.html Los Alamos National Laboratory – Yttrium]