- Double-entry bookkeeping system
-
A double-entry bookkeeping system is a set of rules for recording financial information in a financial accounting system in which every transaction or event changes at least two different nominal ledger accounts.
The name derives from the fact that financial information used to be recorded using pen and ink in paper books - hence "bookkeeping" (whereas now it's recorded mainly in computer systems) and that these books were called journals and ledgers (hence nominal ledger, etc.) - and that each transaction was entered twice (hence "double-entry"), with one side of the transaction being called a debit and the other a credit.
It was first codified in the 15th century by Luca Pacioli. In deciding which account has to be debited and which account has to be credited, the golden rules of accounting are used. This is also accomplished using the accounting equation: Equity = Assets - Liabilities. The accounting equation serves as an error detection tool. If at any point the sum of debits for all accounts does not equal the corresponding sum of credits for all accounts, an error has occurred. It follows that the sum of debits and the sum of the credits must be equal in value.
Double-entry bookkeeping is not a guarantee that no errors have been made - for example, the wrong ledger account may have been debited or credited, or the entries completely reversed.
Contents
Accounting entries
In the double-entry accounting system, each accounting entry records related pairs of financial transactions for asset, liability, income, expense, or capital accounts. Recording of a debit amount to one account and an equal credit amount to another account results in total debits being equal to total credits for all accounts in the general ledger. If the accounting entries are recorded without error, the aggregate balance of all accounts having positive balances will be equal to the aggregate balance of all accounts having negative balances. Accounting entries that debit and credit related accounts typically include the same date and identifying code in both accounts, so that in case of error, each debit and credit can be traced back to a journal and transaction source document, thus preserving an audit trail. The rules for formulating accounting entries are known as "Golden Rules of Accounting". The accounting entries are recorded in the "Books of Accounts". Regardless of which accounts and how many are impacted by a given transaction, the fundamental accounting equation A = L + OE will hold.
History
Main article: AccountancyThe earliest extant records that follow the modern double-entry form are those of Amatino Manucci, a Florentine merchant at the end of the 13th century.[1] Some sources suggest that Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici introduced this method for the Medici bank in the 14th century. By the end of the 15th century, the merchant venturers of Venice used this system widely. Luca Pacioli, a Franciscan friar and collaborator of Leonardo da Vinci, first codified the system in a mathematics textbook of 1494.[2]Pacioli is often called the "father of accounting" because he was the first to publish a detailed description of the double-entry system, thus enabling others to study and use it.[3][4] There is however controversy among scholars lately that Benedikt Kotruljević wrote the first manual on a double-entry bookkeeping system in his 1458 treatise Della mercatura e del mercante perfetto.[5][6][7][8][9][10]
Approaches
There are two different approaches to the double entry system of bookkeeping. They are Traditional Approach and Accounting Equation Approach. Irrespective of the approach used, the effect on the books of accounts remain the same, with two aspects (debit and credit) in each of the transactions.
Traditional approach
This approach is used in Britain in which accounts are classified as real, personal, and nominal accounts. Real accounts are assets. Personal accounts are liabilities and owners' equity and represent people and entities that have invested in the business. Nominal accounts are revenue, expenses, gains, and losses. Transactions are entered in the books of accounts by applying the following golden rules of accounting:
- Personal account: Debit the receiver and credit the giver
- Real account: Debit what comes in and credit what goes out
- Nominal account: Debit all expenses & losses and credit all incomes & gains[11]
Accounting equation approach
This approach is also called as the American approach. Under this approach transactions are recorded based on the accounting equation, i.e., Assets = Liabilities + Capital. The accounting equation is a statement of equality between the debits and the credits. The rules of debit and credit depend on the nature of an account. For this purpose of the accounting equation approach, all the accounts are classified into the following five types, based on periodicity of flow, as: assets, capital, liabilities, revenues/expenses, or gains/losses.
If there is an increase or decrease in one account, there will be equal decrease or increase in another account. There may be equal increases to both accounts, depending on what kind of accounts they are. There may also be equal decreases to both accounts. Accordingly, the following rules of debit and credit in respect to the various categories of accounts can be obtained. The rules may be summarised as below:
- Assets Accounts: debit increases in assets and credit decreases in assets
- Capital Account: credit increases in capital and debit decreases in capital
- Liabilities Accounts: credit increases in liabilities and debit decreases in liabilities
- Revenues or Incomes Accounts: credits increases in incomes and gains and debit decreases in incomes and gains
- Expenses or Losses Accounts: debit increases in expenses and losses and credit decreases in expenses and losses
Books of accounts
Each financial transaction is recorded in at least two different nominal ledger accounts within the financial accounting system, so that the total debits equals the total credits in the General Ledger, i.e. the accounts balance. This is a partial check that each and every transaction has been correctly recorded. The transaction is recorded as a "debit entry" (Dr.) in one account, and a "credit entry" (Cr.) in a second account. The debit entry will be recorded on the debit side (left-hand side) of a General ledger and the credit entry will be recorded on the credit side (right-hand side) of a General ledger account. If the total of the entries on the debit side of one account is greater than the total on the credit side of the same nominal account, that account is said to have a debit balance.
Double entry is used only in nominal ledgers. It is not used in daybooks (journals), which normally do not form part of the nominal ledger system. The information from the daybooks will be used in the nominal ledger and it is the nominal ledgers that will ensure the integrity of the resulting financial information created from the daybooks (provided that the information recorded in the daybooks is correct).
The reason for this is to limit the number of entries in the nominal ledger: entries in the daybooks can be totalled before they are entered in the nominal ledger. If there are only a relatively small number of transactions it may be simpler instead to treat the daybooks as an integral part of the nominal ledger and thus of the double-entry system.
However as can be seen from the examples of daybooks shown below, it is still necessary to check, within each daybook, that the postings from the daybook balance.
The double entry system uses nominal ledger accounts. From these nominal ledger accounts a trial balance can be created. The trial balance lists all the nominal ledger account balances. The list is split into two columns, with debit balances placed in the left hand column and credit balances placed in the right hand column. Another column will contain the name of the nominal ledger account describing what each value is for. The total of the debit column must equal the total of the credit column.
Debits and credits
Main article: Debits and creditsDouble-entry bookkeeping is governed by the accounting equation. If revenue equals expenses, the following (basic) equation must be true:
- assets = liabilities + equity
For the accounts to remain in balance, a change in one account must be matched with a change in another account. These changes are made by debits and credits to the accounts. Note that the usage of these terms in accounting is not identical to their everyday usage. Whether one uses a debit or credit to increase or decrease an account depends on the normal balance of the account. Assets, Expenses, and Drawings accounts (on the left side of the equation) have a normal balance of debit. Liability, Revenue, and Capital accounts (on the right side of the equation) have a normal balance of credit. On a general ledger, debits are recorded on the left side and credits on the right side for each account. Since the accounts must always balance, for each transaction there will be a debit made to one or several accounts and a credit made to one or several accounts. The sum of all debits made in any transaction must equal the sum of all credits made. After a series of transactions, therefore, the sum of all the accounts with a debit balance will equal the sum of all the accounts with a credit balance.
Debits and credits are numbers recorded as follows:
- Debits are recorded on the left side of a T account in a ledger. Debits increase balances in asset accounts and expense accounts and decrease balances in liability accounts, revenue accounts, and capital accounts.
- Credits are recorded on the right side of a T account in a ledger. Credits increase balances in liability accounts, revenue accounts, and capital accounts, and decrease balances in asset accounts and expense accounts.
- Debit accounts are asset and expense accounts that usually have debit balances, i.e. the total debits usually exceeds the total credits in each debit account.
- Credit accounts are revenue (income, gains) accounts and liability accounts that usually have credit balances.
Debit Credit Asset Increase Decrease Liability Decrease Increase Income (revenue) Decrease Increase Expense Increase Decrease Capital Decrease Increase Double entry example
In this example the following will be used:
Books of prime entry (Books of original entry)
- Sales Invoice Daybook (records customer invoices)
- Bank Receipts Daybook (records customer & non customer receipts)
- Cash book
- Return inwards day book
- Return outwards day book
- Purchase Invoice Daybook (records supplier invoices)
- Bank Payments Daybook (records supplier & non supplier payments)
The books of prime entry are where transactions are first recorded. They are not part of the Double-entry system.
Ledger Cards
- Customer Ledger Cards
- Supplier Ledger Cards
- General Ledger (Nominal Ledger)
- Bank Account Ledger
- Trade Creditors Ledger
- Trade Debtors Ledger
Purchase invoice daybook
Purchase Invoice Daybook Date Supplier Name Reference Amount Electricity Widgets 10 July 2006 Electricity Company PI1 1000 1000 12 July 2006 Widget Company PI2 1600 1600 ------- ------- ------- Total 2600 1000 1600 ==== ==== ==== Credit Debit Debit Trade Electricity Widgets control a/c a/c a/c Each individual line is posted as follows:
- The amount value is posted as a credit to the individual supplier's ledger a/c
- The analysis amount is posted as a debit to the relevant general ledger a/c
From example above:
- Line 1 - Amount value 1000 is posted as a credit to the Supplier's ledger a/c ELE01-Electricity Company
- Line 2 - Amount value 1600 is posted as a credit to the Supplier's ledger a/c WID01-Widget Company
The totals of each column are posted as follows:
- Amount total value 2600 posted as a credit to the Trade creditors control a/c
- Electricity total value 1000 posted as a debit to the Electricity General Ledger a/c
- Widget total value 1600 posted as a debit to the Widgets General Ledger a/c
Double-entry has been observed because Dr = 2600 and Cr = 2600.
Bank payments daybook
The payments book is not part of the double-entry system.
Bank Payments Daybook Date Supplier Name Reference Amount Suppliers Wages 17 July 2006 Electricity Company BP701 1000 1000 19 July 2006 Widget Company BP702 900 900 28 July 2006 Owner's Wages BP703 400 400 ------- ------- ------- Total 2300 1900 400 ==== ==== ==== Credit Debit Debit Bank Trade Wages Account Creditors control a/c control a/c Keys: PI = Purchase Invoice, BP = Bank Payment
Each individual line is posted as follows:
- The amount value is posted as a debit to the individual supplier's ledger a/c.
- The analysis amount is posted as a credit to the relevant general ledger a/c.
From example above:
- Line 1 - Amount value 1000 is posted as a debit to the Supplier's ledger a/c ELE01-Electricity Company.
- Line 2 - Amount value 900 is posted as a debit to the Supplier's ledger a/c WID01-Widget Company.
The totals of each column are posted as follows:
- Amount total value 2300 posted as a credit to the Bank Account.
- Trade Creditors total value 1900 posted as a debit to the Trade creditors control a/c.
- Other total value 400 posted as a debit to the Wages control a/c.
Double-entry has been observed because Dr = 2300 and Cr = 2300.
The daybooks are the key documents (books) to the double entry system. From these daybooks we create the ledger accounts. Each transaction will be recorded in at least two ledger accounts.
Supplier ledger cards
Supplier Ledger Cards A/c Code: ELE01 - Electricity Company Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 17 July 2006 Bank Payments Daybook BP701 1000 10 July 2006 Invoice PI1 1000 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 0 ------- ------- 1000 1000 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 0 A/c Code: WID01 - Widget Company Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 19 July 2006 Bank Payments Daybook BP702 900 12 July 2006 Invoice PI2 1600 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 700 ------- ------- 1600 1600 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 700 Sales/customers
Sales daybook
Sales Invoice Daybook Date Customer Name Reference Amount Parts Service 2 July 2006 JJ Manufacturing SI1 2500 2500 29 July 2006 JJ Manufacturing SI2 3200 3200 ------- ------- ------- Total 5700 2500 3200 ==== ==== ==== Debit Credit Credit Trade Sales Sales debtors Parts Service control a/c a/c a/c Each individual line is posted as follows:
- The amount value is posted as a debit to the individual customer's ledger a/c.
- The analysis amount is posted as a credit to the relevant general ledger a/c.
From example above:
- Line 1 - Amount value 2500 is posted as a debit to the Customer's ledger a/c JJM01-JJ Manufacturing.
- Line 2 - Amount value 3200 is posted as a debit to the Customer's ledger a/c JJM01-JJ Manufacturing.
The totals of each column are posted as follows:
- Amount total value 5700 posted as a debit to the Trade debtors control a/c.
- Sales-parts total value 2500 posted as a credit to the Sales parts a/c.
- Sales-service total value 3200 posted as a credit to the Sales service a/c.
Double-entry has been observed because Dr = 5700 and Cr = 5700.
Customer ledger cards
Customer Ledger cards are not part of the Double-entry system. They are for memorandum purposes only. They allow you to know the total amount an individual customer owes you.
CUSTOMER LEDGER CARDS A/c Code: JJM01 - JJ Manufacturing Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 2 July 2006 Sales invoice daybook SI1 2500 20 July 2006 Bank receipts daybook BR1 2500 29 July 2006 Sales invoice daybook SI2 3200 31 July 2006 balance c/d 3200 ------- ------- 5700 5700 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 3200 General (nominal) ledger
GENERAL (NOMINAL) LEDGER Sales parts Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 2500 2 July 2006 Sales invoice daybook SDB 2500 ------- ------- 2500 2500 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 2500 Sales service Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 31 May 2006 Balance c/d 3200 29 July 2006 Sales invoice daybook SDB 3200 ------- ------- 3200 3200 ==== ==== 1 June 2010 Balance b/d 3200 Electricity Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 10 May 2010 Electricity Co. PDB 1000 30 May 2010 Balance c/d 1000 ------- ------- 1000 1000 ==== ==== 1 June 2010 Balance b/d 1000 Water Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 12 May 2010 water Co. Pdb 1600 31 May 2010 Balance c/d 1600 ------- ------- 1600 1600 ==== ==== 1 August 2010 Balance b/d 1600 Other a/c Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 28 July 2006 Owner's Wages BPDB 400 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 400 ------- ------- 400 400 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 400 Bank Control A/c Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 31 July 2006 Bank receipts daybook BRDB 2500 31 July 2006 Bank payments daybook BPDB 2300 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 200 ------- ------- 2500 2500 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 200 Trade Debtors Control A/c Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 1 July 2006 Balance b/d 0 31 July 2006 Bank receipts daybook BRDB 2500 31 July 2006 Sales Invoice Daybook SDB 5700 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 3200 ------- ------- 5700 5700 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 3200 Trade Creditors Control A/c Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 31 July 2006 Bank Payments Daybook BPDB 1900 1 July 2006 Balance b/d 0 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 700 31 July 2006 Purchase Daybook PDB 2600 ------- ------- 2600 2600 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 700 The customers ledger cards shows the breakdown of how the trade debtors control a/c is made up. The trade debtors control a/c is the total of outstanding debtors and the customer ledger cards shows the amount due for each individual customer. The total of each individual customer account added together should equal the total in the trade debtors control a/c.
The supplier ledger cards shows the breakdown of how the trade creditors control a/c is made up. The trade creditors control a/c is the total of outstanding creditors and the suppliers ledger cards shows the amount due for each individual supplier. The total of each individual supplier account added together should equal the total in the trade creditors control a/c.
Each Bank a/c shows all the money in and out through a bank. If you have more than one bank account for your company you will have to maintain separate bank account ledgers in order to complete bank reconciliation statements and be able to see how much is left in each account.
Bank account
Bank A/c Date Details Reference Amount Date Details Reference Amount 20 July 2006 Bank Receipts Day Book BR1 2500 17 July 2006 Bank Payments Daybook BP701 1000 19 July 2006 Bank Payments Daybook BP702 900 28 July 2006 Bank Payments Daybook BP703 400 31 July 2006 Balance c/d 200 ------- ------- 2500 2500 ==== ==== 1 August 2006 Balance b/d 200 Unadjusted trial balance
Trial balance as at 31 July 2006 A/c description Debit Credit Sales-parts 2500 Sales-service 3200 Widgets 1600 Electricity 1000 Other 400 Bank 200 Trade Debtors Control A/c 3200 Trade Creditors Control A/c 700 ------- ------- 6400 6400 ===== ===== Both sides must have the same overall total Debits = Credits. The individual customer accounts are not to be listed in the trial balance, as the Trade debtors control a/c is the summary of each individual customer a/c.
The individual supplier accounts are not to be listed in the trial balance, as the Trade creditors control a/c is the summary of each individual supplier a/c.
Important note: this example is designed to show double entry. There are methods of creating a trial balance that significantly reduce the time it takes to record entries in the general ledger and trial balance.
Profit-and-loss statement and balance sheet
Profit and loss statement for the month ending 31 July 2006 Dr x Sales x Sales-parts 2500 x Sales-service 3200 x ------- x 5700 x Widgets 1600 x ------- x Gross Profit 4100 x Less expenses x Electricity 1000 x Other 400 x ------- x 1400 x ------- x Net Profit 2700 x ==== Balance sheet as at 31 July 2006 Dr x Current Assets x Bank A/c 200 x Trade Debtors 3200 x ------- x 3400 x Current Liabilities x Trade Creditors 700 x ------- x 700 x ------- x Net Current Assets 2700 x ==== x Capital & Reserves x Revenue Reserves a/c 2700 x ------- x 2700 x ==== See also
- Nostro and vostro accounts
- Single-entry accounting system
- Momentum Accounting and Triple-Entry Bookkeeping
Notes and references
- ^ G. A. Lee (1977), "The Coming of Age of Double Entry: The Giovanni Farolfi Ledger of 1299-1300", Accounting Historians Journal, 4(2): 79-95
- ^ Luca Pacioli: The Father of Accounting
- ^ La Riegola De Libro
- ^ Livio, Mario (2002). The Golden Ratio. New York: Broadway Books. pp. 130–131. ISBN 0-7679-0816-3.
- ^ History of Croatian Science, 15th-19th centuries
- ^ Essay title - Financial Accounting And Accountants
- ^ SIESC 2007 in CROATIA
- ^ Accounting History
- ^ SIESC 2007 in CROATIA
- ^ Luca Pacioli is no longer the first exhibitor of record keeping. Alfieri, Vittorio (Prof.), La partita doppia applicata alle scritture delle antiche aziende mercantili veneziane, G.B. Paravia, 1891, Original from Columbia University, Alfieri, Chapter XIII,p. 117
- ^ Accountancy: Higher Secondary First Year (First ed.). Tamil Nadu Textbooks Corporation. 2004. pp. 28–34. http://www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in/Books/11/Std11-Acct-EM.pdf. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
External links
Categories:- Accounting systems
- Italian inventions
- Accounting terminology
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
