History of assassination

Assassination, the murder of an opponent or well-known public figure, is one of the oldest tools of power struggles, as well as the expression of certain psychopathic disorders. It dates back to the earliest governments and tribal structures of the world.

Ancient history

Chanakya (c. 350-283 BC) wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise "Arthashastra". His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies, including two of Alexander's generals Nicanor and Philip. [cite journal | first = Roger | last = Boesche | year = 2003 | month = January | title = [http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/journal_of_military_history/v067/67.1boesche.pdf Kautilya's "Arthaśāstra" on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India] | journal = The Journal of Military History | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 9–37 | id = ISSN 08993718 | doi = 10.1353/jmh.2003.0006]

Towards the end of the Warring States Period (3rd century BC) in China, the state Qin rose to hegemony over other states. The Prince of the state Yan felt the threat and sought to remove the Qin king (later Qin Shi Huang) and sent Jing Ke for the mission. The assassination attempt was foiled and Jing Ke was killed on the spot.

Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, can be viewed as a victim of assassination. It is a fact, however, that by the fall of the Roman Republic assassination had become a commonly-accepted tool towards the end not only of improving one's own position, but to influence policy — the killing of Gaius Julius Caesar being a notable example, though many Emperors met such an end. In whatever case, there seems to have not been a good deal of moral indignation at the practice amongst the political circles of the time, save, naturally, by the affected.

As the Middle Ages came about from the fall of the Roman Empire, the moral and ethical dimensions of what was before a simple political tool began to take shape.

Although in that period intentional regicide was an extremely rare occurrence, the situation changed dramatically with the Renaissance when the ideas of "tyrannomachy" (i.e. killing of a King when his rule becomes tyrannical) re-emerged and gained recognition. Several European monarchs and other leading figures were assassinated during religious wars or by religious opponents, for example Henry III and Henry IV of France, and the Protestant Dutch leader, William the Silent. There were also many unsuccessful assassination plots against rulers such as Elizabeth I of England by religious opponents. There were notable detractors, however; Abdülmecid of the Ottoman Empire refused to put to death plotters against his life during his reign.

The Hashshashin, a Muslim group in the Middle Ages-Middle East, was well-known for performing assassinations in the style of modern suicide attackers (though using knives or similar weapons rather than the explosives modern suicide bombers are known for). The word "assassin" was derived the name of their group.

Modern history

Pre-World War I

As the world moved into the present day and the stakes in political clashes of will continued to grow to a global scale, the number of assassinations concurrently multiplied. In Russia alone, five emperors were assassinated within less than 200 years - Ivan VI, Peter III, Paul I, Alexander II and Nicholas II (along with his family: his wife, Alexandra; daughters Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia, and son Alexey).

The most notable assassination victim within early U.S. history was President Abraham Lincoln. Three other U.S. Presidents have been killed by assassination: James Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy. Presidents Andrew Jackson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Gerald Ford, and Ronald Reagan survived significant assassination attempts (FDR while President-elect, the others while in office). Former President Theodore Roosevelt was shot and wounded during the 1912 presidential campaign. During the Lincoln Assassination, there were also attacks planned against current Vice-president Andrew Johnson and Secretary William H. Seward, but Johnson's did not go through, and Seward survived the attack. An assassination plot against Jefferson Davis, known as the Dahlgren Affair, may have been initiated during the American Civil War.

In Europe the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serb nationalist insurgents triggered World War I.

Post-World War I

However, the 20th century likely marks the first time nation-states began training assassins to be specifically used against so-called enemies of the state. During World War II, for example, MI6 trained a group of Czechoslovakian operatives to kill the Nazi general Reinhard Heydrich (who did later perish by their efforts - see Operation Anthropoid), and repeated attempts were made by both the British MI6, the American Office of Strategic Services (later the Central Intelligence Agency) and the Soviet SMERSH to kill Adolf Hitler, who was in fact nearly killed in a bomb plot by some of his own officers.

India's "Father of the Nation", Mohandas K. Gandhi, was shot on January 30 1948 by Nathuram Godse, for what Godse perceived as his betrayal of the Hindu cause in attempting to seek peace between Hindus and Muslims. [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm BBC World: The life and death of Mahatma Gandhi] Retrieved on 2008-01-02]

Cold War and beyond

The Cold War saw a dramatic increase in the number of political assassinations, likely due in large part to the ideological polarization of most of the First and Second worlds, whose adherents were more than willing to both justify and finance such killings. During the Kennedy era Fidel Castro narrowly escaped death on several occasions at the hands of the CIA (a function of the agency's "executive action" program) and CIA-backed rebels (there are accounts that exploding shoes and poisoned clams were employed); some allege that Salvador Allende of Chile was another example, though specific proof is lacking. The assassination of the FBI agent Dan Mitrione, a well known torture's teacher, in hands of the Uruguayan guerrilla movement Tupamaros is a perfect proof of United States intervention in Latin American governments during the Cold War. At the same time, the KGB made creative use of assassination to deal with high-profile defectors such as Georgi Markov, and Israel's Mossad made use of such tactics to eliminate Palestinian guerrillas, politicians and revolutionaries, though some Israelis argue that the targeted often crossed the line between one or another or were even all three.Most major powers were not long in repudiating such tactics, for example during the presidency of Gerald Ford in the United States in 1976 (Executive Order 12333, which proscription was relaxed however by the George W. Bush administration). Many allege, however, that this is merely a smoke screen for political and moral benefit and that the covert and illegal training of assassins by major intelligence agencies continue, such as at the School of the Americas run by the United States. In fact, the debate over the use of such tactics is not closed by any means; many accuse Russia of continuing to practice it in Chechnya and against Chechens abroad, as well as Israel in Palestine and against Palestinians abroad (as well as those Mossad deems a threat to Israeli national security, as in the aftermath of the Munich Massacre during "Operation Wrath of God"). Besides Palestine Liberation Organization members assassinated abroad, Tsahal has also often targeted Hamas activists in the Gaza strip.

Terrorist organizations will frequently target other combatants as well as non-combatants in ther efforts, a prime example was the assassination of Irish Republican solicitor Patrick Finucane who was murdered by the loyalist Ulster Defence Association in 1989 in Belfast , Northern Ireland.

Country-specific

In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict

In the course of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) employed what they call "focused foiling" ( _he. סיכול ממוקד " [http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93 sikul memukad] ") against those suspected by Israel to have intentions of performing a specific act of violence in the very near future or to be linked indirectly with several acts of violence (organizing, planning, researching means of destruction etc), thus raising the likelihood that his or her assassination would foil similar activities in the future. Usually, such strikes have been carried out by Israeli Air Force attack helicopters that fire guided missiles in the general direction of the target, after the Shin Bet supplies intelligence for the target.

Related controversies

The exact nature of said proof in focused foiling situations is both controversial and classified, as it involves clandestine military intelligence oriented means and operational decisions made by intelligence officers and commanders rather than being a part of a published justice system executed by lawyers and judges.

The IDF claims that targeted killings are only pursued to prevent future terrorism acts, not as revenge for past activities however numerous examples indicate otherwise (refer Operation Wrath of God amongst others). It also claims that this practice is only used when there is absolutely no practical way of foiling the future acts by other means (e.g., arrest) with minimal risk to the soldiers or civilians. IDF also claims that the practice is only used when there is a certainty in the identification of the target, in order to minimize harm to innocent bystanders. These IDF claims have never been monitored or validated by an independent authority, and the IDF deliberations about the killings remain secret. Moreover, actual injury and death of innocent bystanders which serves to terrorize and therefore make pliable the Palestinian population remains a strong claim by opponents of these targeted killings.

Defenders of this practice point out that it is in accordance with the Fourth Geneva Convention ( [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Convention#Article_28 Part 3, Article 1, Section 28] ) which reads: “The presence of a protected person may not be used to render certain points or areas immune from military operations,” and so they argue that international law explicitly gives Israel the right to conduct military operations against military targets under these circumstances. [cite news
author = Podhoretz, John
url = http://www.aijac.org.au/updates/Jul-02/260702.html
title = Hamas kills its own
work = Opinion
publisher = New York Post
pages = p.29
date = July 24, 2002
accessdate = 2006-08-05
quote = The Fourth Geneva Convention goes into great and elaborate detail about how to assign fault when military activities take place in civilian areas. Those who are actually fighting the war are not considered "protected persons." Only civilians are granted the status of "protected persons" whose rights cannot be violated with impunity. The Fourth Geneva Convention convicts Hamas and Salah Shehada in one sentence. That sentence makes up the entirety of Part 3, Article 1, Section 28. It reads: "The presence of a protected person may not be used to render certain points or areas immune from military operations." This sentence appears in the Fourth Geneva Convention precisely to deal with situations like the ones the Israelis faced.

"Note: The New York Post link to the article may be found [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/nypost/access/141316401.html?dids=141316401:141316401&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jul+24%2C+2002&author=John+Podhoretz&pub=New+York+Post&edition=&startpage=029&desc=HAMAS+KILLS+ITS+OWN here] , but it requires a subscription."] [cite web
url = http://www.strategypage.com/dls/articles2003/20031128.asp
title = What the Geneva Protocols Really Say
accessdate = 2007-07-06
last = Schneider
first = Scott
date = November 28, 2003
publisher = StrategyWorld.com]

Israeli public support

Targeted killings are largely supported by Israeli society to various extents, [cite paper
author= Steven R. David
date= September 2002
url= http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/david.pdf
format= PDF
title= Fatal Choices: Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing
publisher= Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University
accessdate= 2006-08-01] [cite journal
last = Luft
first = Gal
year = 2003
month = Winter
title = "The Logic of Israel's Targeted Killing"
journal = The Middle East Quarterly
volume = X
issue = 1
url = http://www.meforum.org/article/515
accessdate = 2006-08-01] but there are exceptions: In 2003, 27 IAF Air Force pilots composed a letter of protest to the Air Force commander Dan Halutz, announcing their refusal to continue and perform attacks on targets within Palestinian population centers, and claiming that the occupation of the Palestinians "morally corrupts the fabric of Israeli society". This letter, the first of its kind emanating from the Air Force, evoked a storm of political protest in Israel, with most circles condemning it as dereliction of duty. IDF ethics forbid soldiers from making public political affiliations, and subsequently the IDF chief of staff announced that all the signatories would be suspended from flight duty, after which some of the pilots recanted and removed their signature.

Well known Israeli operations

Some of the best known targeted killings by Israeli military were Hamas leaders Salah Shahade (July 2002), Sheikh Ahmed Yassin (March 2004), Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi (April 2004) and Adnan al-Ghoul (October 2004). While the term "targeted killing" is mostly used within the context of the Al-Aqsa Intifada by airborne attacks, Israeli security forces have reportedly assassinated top Palestinians in the past, although this was never confirmed officially.

Some of the best known operations include:
* Operation Wrath of God against Black September perpetrators of the 1972 Munich massacre
* Operation Spring of Youth against top PLO leaders in Beirut, Lebanon, 1973
* Abu Jihad (Fatah) in Tunis, 1988
* Fathi Shaqaqi (Palestinian Islamic Jihad) in Malta, 1995
* Yahya Ayyash (Hamas bombmaker, "the engineer") in Gaza, 1996
* Khaled Mashal (Hamas, foiled) in Jordan, 1997While most assassinations throughout the course of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict were carried out by the IDF against Palestinian leaders of what Israel claims are terror factions, Israeli minister Rehavam Zeevi was assassinated by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a militant group listed as a terror organization by the U.S. and the EU.

Palestinian attacks and Israeli response

Palestinian attacks against Israel have been costly for the Jewish state. IDF reports show that from the start of the Second Intifada (in 2000) to the Year 2005, Palestinians killed 1,074 Israelis and wounded 7,520. These are serious figures for such a small country, roughly equivalent to 50,000 dead and 300,000 wounded in the United States over five years. Such losses generated immense public pressure from the Israeli public for a forceful response, and ramped up targeted killings were one such outcome. ["Do targeted killings work?", Daniel Byman, Foreign Affairs, March/April 2006, Volume 85, Number 2, p. 95-112 ] Of course the fact that ten times as many Palestinians are killed than Israelis is neither here nor there in these considerations.

While Palestinian operations caused substantial damage, there is also some evidence that the IDF reprisal assassination policy has been salutary in reducing the "effectiveness" of such attacks. As regards Hamas for example, Israeli deaths dropped as the people targeted for assassination were killed, from a high of 75 in 2001, to 21 in 2005. Raw attack figures seem to contradict this result, for Hamas attacks "increased" between 2001 and 2005. Nevertheless, even as the total number of Hamas operations climbed, deaths resulting from such attacks plunged, suggesting that the "effectiveness" of such attacks was being continually weakened. [Byman, op. cit.]

There are several practical reasons why calculated hits may weaken the effectiveness of terrorist activities. Targeted killings eliminate skilled terrorists, bomb makers, forgers, recruiters and other operatives, who need time to develop expertise. The terror wrought by wildly firing into crowds during 'Targeted hits' also disrupt the opponent's infrastructure and organization and morale, and cause immense stress on the populace, who must constantly move, switch locations and hide. This reduces the flow of information in the terrorist organization and reduces its effectiveness. Assassinations may also serve as a demoralizing agent. Targeted individuals cannot visit their wives, children, relatives or families without severe risk, and may even avoid their names being made public for fear of liquidation. Israeli killings of Hamas leaders Yassin and Rantisi for example, caused Hamas to not publicly identify their replacement, a step necessary to ensure his survival.

Continual diplomatic pressure against the Israeli policy, and the announcement of periodic unilateral cease-fires at various times by Hamas, are seen by some as further proof of the policy's efficacy. Some observers however, argue that other factors are at play besides the hit policy, including improved intelligence gathering leading to more arrests, and the construction of the Israeli security fence which has made it more difficult for terrorist operatives to infiltrate. [Byman, op. cit.]

United States

In 1943, the United States military used knowledge from decoded transmissions to carry out a targeted killing of the Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. [Manchester, William. "" p. 369.]

During the Cold War, the United States attempted several times to assassinate Cuban President Fidel Castro. [ [http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/ops/castro.htm Cuba: Assassination Attempts] Global security.org]

In 1981, President Ronald Reagan issued Executive Order 12333, which codified a policy first laid down in 1976 by the Ford administration. It stated, "No person employed by or acting on behalf of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, assassination."

In 1986, the American air strikes against Libya included an attack on the barracks where Muammar al-Gaddafi was known to be sleeping. It was claimed that the attack resulted in the death of Qaddafi's infant daughter but reporter Barbara Slavin of USA Today who was in Libya at the time, set the record straight. "His adopted daughter was not killed," she said. "An infant girl was killed. I actually saw her body. She was adopted posthumously by Gadhafi. She was not related to Gadhafi." [Cite web|title=Sex For Gadhafi Interviews?|author=Cliff Kincaid|url=http://www.aim.org/aim_column/A1443_0_3_0_C/|date=April 16, 2004|accessdate=2006-12-02]

During the 1991 Gulf War, the United States struck many of Iraq’s most important command bunkers with bunker-busting bombs in hopes of killing Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.Fact|date=February 2007

Since the rise of al-Qaeda, both the Clinton and Bush administrations have backed "targeted killings." In 1998, in retaliation for the al-Qaeda attacks on U.S. embassies in East Africa, the Clinton administration launched cruise missiles against a training camp in Afghanistan where bin Laden had been hours before. Reportedly, the United States nearly killed the leader of Taliban, Mullah Omar, with a Predator-launched Hellfire missile on the first night of Operation Enduring Freedom. In May 2002, the CIA launched a Hellfire missile from a Predator drone in an effort to kill the Afghan warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar.Fact|date=February 2007

On November 3, 2002, a US Central Intelligence Agency-operated MQ-1 Predator unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) fired a Hellfire missile that destroyed a car carrying six suspected al-Qaeda operatives in Yemen. The target of the attack was Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harethi, the top al-Qaeda operative in Yemen. Among those killed in the attack was a US citizen, Yemeni-American Ahmed Hijazi. cite news |first=Dana |last=Priest |title=CIA Killed U.S. Citizen In Yemen Missile Strike |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A25630-2002Nov7&notFound=true |work=Washington Post |date=2002-11-08 |accessdate=2008-02-28 Fact|date=February 2007

According to Bush administration, the killing of an American in this fashion was legal. "I can assure you that no constitutional questions are raised here. There are authorities that the president can give to officials. He's well within the balance of accepted practice and the letter of his constitutional authority," said Condoleezza Rice, the US national security adviser. [ [http://timeenoughforlove.org/saved/YahooNewsU_S_CanTargetAmericanal-QaidaAgents.htm U.S. Can Target American al-Qaida Agents] By JOHN J. LUMPKIN. December 3, 2002] [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2404425.stm US drones take combat role] By Keith Somerville (BBC). November 5, 2002]

During the press-conference, the US State Department spokesman Richard Boucher said that Washington's reasons for opposing the targeted killings of Palestinians might not apply in other circumstances and denied allegation that by staging the Yemen operation the US may be using double standards towards Israeli policy: "We all understand the situation with regard to Israeli-Palestinian issues and the prospects of peace and the prospects of negotiation... and of the need to create an atmosphere for progress... A lot of different things come into play there... Our policy on targeted killings in the Israeli-Palestinian context has not changed." [ [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/1106-06.htm US 'Still Opposes' Targeted Killings] (BBC) November 6, 2002]

On December 3, 2005, the US was blamed for another incident, in which alleged al-Qaeda #3 man (operations chief Abu Hamza Rabia) was reportedly killed in Pakistan by an airborne missile, together with four associates. However, Pakistani officials claim the group was killed while preparing explosives, not from any targeted military operation., [ [http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/12/03/pakistan.rabia/index.html Al Qaeda No. 3 dead, but how?] (CNN) December 3, 2005] [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4494428.stm Blast 'kills al-Qaeda commander'] (BBC) December 3, 2005] The US has made no official comment about the incident.

On January 13, 2006 US CIA-operated unmanned Predator drones launched four Hellfire missiles into the Pakistani village of Damadola, about 7 km (4.5 miles) from the Afghan border, killing at least 18 people. The attack targeted Ayman al-Zawahiri who was thought to be in the village. Pakistani officials later said that al-Zawahiri was not there and that the U.S. had acted on faulty intelligence. [ [http://pakistantimes.net/Top15010601.htm 18 civilians killed by air-strikes in Bajaur area of NW Pakistan] (Pakistan Times)]

On June 7, 2006, US Forces dropped one laser-guided bomb and one GPS-guided bomb on a safehouse north of Baqubah, Iraq, where Al-Qaeda in Iraq leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi was believed to be meeting with several aides. His death was confirmed the next day.

Russia (post-communism)

Russia employed similar strategy in the course of its Chechen Wars, targeting the leaders of separatist movement. Chechen President Dzhokhar Dudaev was killed by an air strike of Russian Air Force on April 21, 1996 and Aslan Maskhadov was killed on March 8, 2005. On July 10, 2006, Shamil Basayev, the Chechen rebel, was killed in an explosion -- though it is unclear if this was an accident in the handling of explosives, or a targeted Russian attack.

"When terrorists feel they are literally being trailed, fighting groups are systematically being detained, when in fact a top leader is eliminated, this creates an atmosphere in which there’s no place for terrorist attacks,” said Vladimir Vasilyev, head of the security committee of the lower house of the Russian State Duma. [ [http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/03/10/maskhimpl.shtml Russia Faces Implications of Maskhadov’s Killing] (MosNews) March 10, 2005]

References