- Definitions of mathematics
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Mathematics has no generally accepted definition. Different schools of thought, particularly in philosophy, have put forth radically different definitions. All are controversial.
Contents
Survey of leading definitions
Early definitions
Aristotle defined mathematics as:
The science of quantity.
In Aristotle's classification of the sciences, discrete quantities were studied by arithmetic, continuous quantities by geometry.[1]
Auguste Comte's definition tried to explain the role of mathematics in coordinating phenomena in all other fields:[2]
The science of indirect measurement.[3] Auguste Comte 1851
The "indirectness" in Comte's definition refers to determining quantities that cannot be measured directly, such as the distance to planets or the size of atoms, by means of their relations to quantities that can be measured directly.[4]
Greater abstraction and competing philosophical schools
The preceding kinds of definitions, which had prevailed since Aristotle's time,[1] were abandoned in the 19th century as new branches of mathematics were developed, which bore no obvious relation to measurement or the physical world, such as group theory, projective geometry,[3] and non-Euclidean geometry.[5] As mathematicians pursued greater rigor and more-abstract foundations, some proposed definitions purely in terms of logic:
Mathematics is the science that draws necessary conclusions.[6] Benjamin Peirce
All Mathematics is Symbolic Logic.[5] Bertrand Russell 1903
Peirce did not think that mathematics is the same as logic, since he thought mathematics makes only hypothetical assertions, not categorical ones.[7] Russell's definition, on the other hand, expresses the logicist philosophy of mathematics[8] without reservation. Competing philosophies of mathematics put forth different definitions.
Opposing the completely deductive character of logicism, intuitionism emphasizes the construction of ideas in the mind. Here is an inituitionist definition:[8]
Mathematics is mental activity which consists in carrying out, one after the other, those mental constructions which are inductive and effective.
meaning that by combining fundamental ideas, one reaches a definite result.
Formalism denies both physical and mental meaning to mathematics, making the symbols and rules themselves the object of study.[8] A formalist definition:
Mathematics is the manipulation of the meaningless symbols of a first-order language according to explicit, syntactical rules.
Still other approaches emphasize pattern, order, or structure. For example:
Mathematics is the classification and study of all possible patterns. Walter Warwick Sawyer, 1955
Yet another approach makes abstraction the defining criterion:
Mathematics is a broad-ranging field of study in which the properties and interactions of idealized objects are examined. Wolfram MathWorld
Definitions in nonspecialist reference works
Most contemporary reference works define mathematics mainly by summarizing its main topics and methods:
The abstract science which investigates deductively the conclusions implicit in the elementary conceptions of spatial and numerical relations, and which includes as its main divisions geometry, arithmetic, and algebra. Oxford English Dictionary, 1933
The study of the measurement, properties, and relationships of quantities and sets, using numbers and symbols. American Heritage Dictionary, 2000
[Mathematics is] the science of structure, order, and relation that has evolved from elemental practices of counting, measuring, and describing the shapes of objects.[9] Encyclopaedia Britannica
Playful, metaphorical, and poetic definitions
Bertrand Russell wrote this famous tongue-in-cheek definition, describing the way all terms in mathematics are ultimately defined by reference to undefined terms:
The subject in which we never know what we are talking about, nor whether what we are saying is true.[10] Bertrand Russell 1901
Many other attempts to characterize mathematics have led to humor or poetic prose:
A mathematician is a blind man in a dark room looking for a black cat which isn't there.[11] Charles Darwin
A mathematician, like a painter or poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas. G. H. Hardy, 1940
Mathematics is the art of giving the same name to different things.[6] Henri Poincaré
Mathematics is the science of skilful operations with concepts and rules invented just for this purpose. [this purpose being the skilful operation ....][12] Eugene Wigner
Mathematics is not a book confined within a cover and bound between brazen clasps, whose contents it needs only patience to ransack; it is not a mine, whose treasures may take long to reduce into possession, but which fill only a limited number of veins and lodes; it is not a soil, whose fertility can be exhausted by the yield of successive harvests; it is not a continent or an ocean, whose area can be mapped out and its contour defined: it is limitless as that space which it finds too narrow for its aspirations; its possibilities are as infinite as the worlds which are forever crowding in and multiplying upon the astronomer's gaze; it is as incapable of being restricted within assigned boundaries or being reduced to definitions of permanent validity, as the consciousness of life, which seems to slumber in each monad, in every atom of matter, in each leaf and bud cell, and is forever ready to burst forth into new forms of vegetable and animal existence.[13] James Joseph Sylvester
What is mathematics? What is it for? What are mathematicians doing nowadays? Wasn't it all finished long ago? How many new numbers can you invent anyway? Is today's mathematics just a matter of huge calculations, with the mathematician as a kind of zookeeper, making sure the precious computers are fed and watered? If it's not, what is it other than the incomprehensible outpourings of superpowered brainboxes with their heads in the clouds and their feet dangling from the lofty balconies of their ivory towers? Mathematics is all of these, and none. Mostly, it's just different. It's not what you expect it to be, you turn your back for a moment and it's changed. It's certainly not just a fixed body of knowledge, its growth is not confined to inventing new numbers, and its hidden tendrils pervade every aspect of modern life.[13] Ian Stewart
See also
References
- ^ a b James Franklin, "Aristotelian Realism" in Philosophy of Mathematics", ed. A.D. Irvine, p. 104. Elsevier (2009).
- ^ Arline Reilein Standley, Auguste Comte, p. 61. Twayne Publishers (1981).
- ^ a b Florian Cajori et al., A History of Mathematics, 5th ed., p. 285–6. American Mathematical Society (1991).
- ^ August Comte, The Philosophy of Mathematics, tr. W.M. Gillespie, pp. 17–25. Harper & Brothers, New York (1851).
- ^ a b Bertrand Russell, The Principles of Mathematics, p. 5. University Press, Cambridge (1903)
- ^ a b Foundations and fundamental concepts of mathematics By Howard Eves page 150
- ^ Carl Boyer, Uta Merzbach, A History of Mathematics, p. 426. John Wiley and Sones (2011).
- ^ a b c Snapper, Ernst (September 1979), "The Three Crises in Mathematics: Logicism, Intuitionism, and Formalism", Mathematics Magazine 52 (4): 207–16, doi:10.2307/2689412, JSTOR 2689412, http://www.members.shaw.ca/kschindler/mathphil.htm, retrieved 2009-02-22.
- ^ "Mathematics. Encyclopaedia Britannica from Encyclopaedia Britannica 2006 Ultimate reference Suite DVD.
- ^ Russell, Bertrand (1901), "Recent Work on the Principles of Mathematics", International Monthly 4.
- ^ "Pi in the Sky", John Barrow
- ^ What is mathematics?
- ^ a b "From Here to Infinity", Ian Stewart
External links
Further reading
- Courant, Richard; Robbins, Herbert (1996), What is Mathematics? (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195105193.
- Gowers, Timothy; Barrow-Green, June; Leader, Imre, eds. (2008), The Princeton Companion to Mathematics, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691118802.
- Hersh, Reuben (1999), What is Mathematics, Really?, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195130874.
- Paulos, John Allen (1991), Beyond Numeracy, Viking, ISBN 9780670836543.
- Stewart, Ian (1996), From Here to Infinity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192832026.
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