History of Detroit, Michigan

The city of Detroit developed from a small French fort in the 18th century to one of the largest American cities in the early 20th century. Based on its auto industry, Detroit's economy expanded following World War II with a post war economic prosperity. Race riots in the late 1960s and mismanagement under Mayor Coleman A. Young (1974-1993) led to white flight. In the 1990s, the city began to experience urban renewal.

17th century

The first recorded mention of what became Detroit was in 1670, when the French Sulpician missionaries François Dollier de Casson and René Bréhant de Galinée stopped at the site on their way to the mission at Sault Ste. Marie. [See Fuller [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=micounty;cc=micounty;idno=arh7780.0001.001;didno=ARH7780.0001.001;view=image;seq=24;page=root;size=s;frm=frameset; pp. 20-21] ] Galínee's journal notes that near the site of present-day Detroit, they found a stone idol venerated by the Indians and destroyed the idol with an axe and dropped the pieces into the river. [See Burton [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=micounty;cc=micounty;idno=bad1447.0002.001;didno=BAD1447.0002.001;view=image;seq=719;page=root;size=s;frm=frameset; pp. 1567-1568] ]

18th century

European settlement of the area began when French officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded a fort and settlement at a site, where the modern city currently stands, along the Detroit River in 1701. Originally the settlement was called Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit after the Comte de Pontchartrain, minister of marine under Louis XIV of France, and for the river that connects Lakes St. Clair and Erie. Francois Marie Picoté sieur de Belestre (Montreal 1719 - 1793) was the last French military commander at Fort Detroit (1758-1760), surrendering the fort on November 29, 1760 to British Major Robert Rogers (of Rogers' Rangers fame and sponsor of the Jonathan Carver expedition to St. Anthony Falls). The British gained control of the area in 1760 and were thwarted by an Indian attack three years later during Pontiac's Rebellion.

During the French and Indian War (1760), British troops gained control and shortened the name to "Detroit". Several tribes led by Chief Pontiac,an Ottawa leader, launched Pontiac's Rebellion (1763), including a siege of Fort Detroit. Partially in response to this, the British Royal Proclamation of 1763, included restrictions in unceded Indian territories.

Detroit was the goal of various American campaigns during the American Revolution, but logistical difficulties in the North American frontier and American Indian allies of Great Britain would keep any armed rebel force from reaching the Detroit area. In the Treaty of Paris (1783), Great Britain ceded territory that included Detroit to the newly recognized United States, though in reality it remained under British control. Great Britain continued to trade with and defend her native allies in the area, and supplied local nations with weapons to harass American settlers and soldiers.

In 1794, a Native American alliance, that had received some support and encouragement from the British, was decisively defeated by General Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Wayne negotiated the Treaty of Greenville (1795 with many of these nations, in which tribes ceded the area of Fort Detroit to the United States. Detroit passed to the United States under the Jay Treaty (1796). Great Britain agreed to evacuate forts held in the United States' Northwest Territory. In 1805, fire destroyed most of the settlement. A river warehouse and brick chimneys of the wooden homes were the sole structures to survive. [ [http://www.ste-anne.org/dempsey.html Ste. Anne of Detroit] "St. Anne Church". Retrieved on April 29, 2006.] Detroit's motto and seal (as on the flag) reflect this fire.

Detroit was incorporated as a town by the legislature of the Northwest Territory at Chillicothe, Ohio, on January 18, 1802, effective February 1, 1802. Government was administered by a five-person board of trustees and there was no office of mayor. Following this, Ohio became a state and the eastern half of Michigan was attached to the Indiana Territory. Because of the difficulty in traveling from Detroit to the capital of the territory in Vincennes over 400 miles (640 km) away, Michigan Territory was established effective June 30, 1805, as a separate territory with Detroit as the capital.

19th century

1805 fire and city incorporation

Before the new territorial government officially began, a fire destroyed nearly all of Detroit on June 11, 1805. The newly appointed governor, William Hull, and the territorial judges (Augustus B. Woodward, Frederick Bates, James Witherell, and John Griffin), constituting the territorial government, essentially established martial law over affairs of the city. They convinced the U.S. Congress to pass an act on April 21, 1806, which authorized them to lay out a town that included all of the old town of Detroit plus an additional 10,000 acres (40 km²) to be used as compensation for persons who lost their house in the fire. [ [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=002/llsl002.db&recNum=435 Statutes at Large, 9th Congress, 1st Session] . "American Memory - A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875" at loc.gov. Page 398.]

On September 13, 1806, the territorial government passed an act incorporating the new city of Detroit. The governor appointed Solomon Sibley as mayor. Shortly afterward, Sibley resigned and Elijah Brush was appointed in his stead. The mayor was appointed by the governor and, under the act of incorporation, was able to disapprove legislation passed by the popularly elected council without any recourse for overriding the mayor. Because of this, many felt that the real aim of the governor in incorporating the city was to remove the popularly elected town officers and exert a more direct influence over governance of the city. [See Farmer [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=micounty&cc=micounty&idno=bad1459.0001.001;frm=frameset&view=image&seq=191 Chapter XXIII] , pp. 133-135] This form of government was extremely unpopular, and was repealed on February 4, 1809. However, to prevent resurrection of the popularly elected town government, on September 16, 1810, an act passed repealing all laws pertaining to Michigan that had been passed by the Legislature of the Northwest Territory. This effectively eradicated any trace of legitimacy for the former popularly elected town government.

War of 1812

This state of affairs continued through the War of 1812, during which Governor Hull surrendered Detroit to the British. Lewis Cass, who replaced Hull as territorial governor, on October 24, 1815, restored control of local affairs to the people of Detroit, with the election of a five-person board of trustees and enactment of a charter for the city of Detroit.

Creation of common council

Government under the board of trustees continued until an act of the Territorial Legislature on August 5, 1824, created a Common Council of the City of Detroit. The Council consisted of five aldermen, the mayor, and the recorder. In an act of April 4, 1827, the number of aldermen increased to seven. In 1839, it increased to 14: two aldermen from six wards plus the mayor and recorder. A seventh ward was created in 1848, an eighth in 1849, and the ninth and tenth wards in 1857. Also in 1857, a new city charter provided that the mayor and recorder would no longer sit as members of the council. At this time, the council consisted of 20 members, two aldermen from ten wards. In 1873, a twelfth ward was added and aldermen from an illegally constituted eleventh ward also temporarily sat on the council. In 1875, a properly constituted eleventh ward and a thirteenth ward were added. The city charter of 1883 changed the name of the body to the Board of Aldermen. A few years earlier in 1881, a separately elected ten-person body named Board of Councilmen (also called the City Council), was established. This body was abolished in 1887.

Immigrants

The son of Prussian Polish immigrants, Rev. John A. Lemke, born in Detroit on February 10, 1866, was the first native born Roman Catholic Priest to be ordained in America. Treppa, Alan R. [http://www.stalbertus.org/revLemke.pdf Rev. John A. Lemke: America's First Native Born Roman Catholic Priest] ."St. Albertus.org". Retrieved on July 25, 2008.] He was Baptised at St. Mary Roman Catholic Church (1843), at the corner of St. Antoine and Croghan (Monroe), on February 18, 1866, attended St. Albertus for his primary education, and studied at Detroit College which is now the University of Detroit Mercy where he received a Bachelor's degree in 1884; then, after attending St. Mary's in Baltimore, he completed his theological studies at St. Francis Seminary in Monroe, Michigan, and he was ordained by the Bishop John Samuel Foley in 1889. His added confirmation name was Aloysius.

1863 Race Riot

The Detroit Race Riot (1863) happened on March 6, 1863 and was the city's first riot. At the time, it was reported as “the bloodiest day that ever dawned upon Detroit.” [Detroit Free Press, March 7, 1863]

While not as famous or destructive as riots later in Detroit’s history, the riot of 1863 was certainly a momentous occasion for the city of Detroit. [" [http://www.umich.edu/~historyj/pages_folder/articles/Racial_Rhetoric.pdf Matthew Kundinger. Racial Rhetoric: The Detroit Free Press and Its Part in the Detroit Race Riot of 1863." "Michigan Journal of History." Winter, 2006.] ] The casualties of the day included at least two innocent people dead, a multitude of others—-mostly African-American—-mercilessly beaten, 35 buildings burned to the ground, and a number of other buildings damaged by fire. [Ibid]

20th century

Henry Ford and the automobile industry

A thriving carriage trade set the stage for the work of Henry Ford, who in 1899 built his first automobile factory in Highland Park, an independent city surrounded by Detroit. Ford's manufacturing innovations were soon adopted by rival automobile manufacturers, including General Motors, Chrysler and American Motors. Each of them, like Ford, established its headquarters in the Detroit metropolitan area, solidifying Detroit's status as the world's car capital.

Population increase

The development of the automobile industry led to a massive increase in industrial production in the city. This in turn led to rising demands for labor, which were filled by huge numbers of newcomers from Europe and the American South. Between 1900 and 1930, the city's population soared from 265,000 to over 1.5 million. The landscape of the city also changed dramatically. Once known as the "Paris of the Midwest" for its tree-shaded avenues, the city took on a more blue-collar appearance as its riverfront became lined with factories and grain silos. At the same time, Detroit's downtown flourished architecturally, largely under the leadership of Albert Kahn, who designed a number of Art Deco skyscrapers. The city also experienced a cultural flowering, with a major expansion of the Detroit Institute of Arts and the founding of other institutions.

Labor disputes

With the factories came high-profile labor strife, climaxing in the 1930s as the United Auto Workers initiated bitter battles with Detroit's auto manufacturers. The labor activism established during those years, which brought fame and notoriety to hometown union leaders such as Jimmy Hoffa and Walter Reuther, remains a key feature on the city's cultural and political landscape.

The "Arsenal of Democracy"

The entry of the United States into World War II brought tremendous changes to the city. From 1942 to 1945, production of commercial automobiles in the city ceased entirely, as its factories were used instead to construct M5 tanks, jeeps, and B-24 bombers for the Allies [http://www.detroit.lib.mi.us/GoldenJubileeExhibit/GJ%20WEB/II_Wartime_Detroit.htm] . The Guardian Building was converted into a control center for wartime production [http://www.detroit.lib.mi.us/GoldenJubileeExhibit/GJ%20WEB/II_Wartime_Detroit.htm] . The city's major contribution to the Allied war effort earned it the nickname "The Arsenal of Democracy."

The B-24 Liberator, still the most produced allied bomber in history, helped to shift the balance of power in the war. Prior to the war the aviation industry could produce, optimally, one such plane a day at an aircraft plant. By 1943, Ford's plants managed to produce one B-24 an hour at a peak of 600 per month in 24 hour shifts. Many pilots slept on cots waiting for takeoff as the B-24 rolled off the assembly line at Ford's Willow Run facility.Nolan, Jenny (January 28, 1997). [http://info.detnews.com/redesign/history/story/historytemplate.cfm?id=73&category=locations Willow Run and the Arsenal of Democracy] . Michigan History, "The Detroit News". Retrieved on October 26, 2007.]

Urban strife

Detroit endured painful struggles in the 1960s and 1970s, and was often held up as a symbol of urban blight. After peaking in 1950, at 1.85 million residents, the city's population began a shifting to its suburbs. The construction of the Interstate Highway system in the 1950s helped to popularize a trend of suburban living, as it shortened driving times from suburban areas to the city. By 1960, Detroit's population had dropped to about 1.7 million residents.

Detroit experienced white flight, at least partially attributed to the Twelfth Street riot in 1967 and the effects of court-ordered busing. In the Twelfth Street riot, 43 residents were killed, 467 were wounded and over 2,000 buildings were destroyed.

The riot, coupled with court-ordered busing, caused the city's reputation to deteriorate among whites. By the 1970s, African Americans formed nearly half the city's population, and the first black mayor, Coleman Young, was elected in 1973. Though popular among black residents, Young's style during his record four terms in office was not well received by many white Detroiters, who continued to move to the suburbs in large numbers. [ [http://www.cnn.com/US/9711/29/young.obit.pm/ Detroit's 'great warrior,' Coleman Young, dies (November 29, 1997)] . "CNN.com".]

Urban flight from the city contributed to a dramatic population shift since the 1950s. Meanwhile, structures remained for years in need of redevelopment. Recent urban development in Detroit has led to some demolition and renovation. With the large number of homes razed, sizeable tracts have reverted back to nature to become a form urban prairie. [ [http://www.detroitblog.org/?p=287 Wild Kingdom] . "Detroit Blog". Accessed March 8, 2006.] A 1989 Detroit News story reported that the abandonment had created a new industry: scavengers taking bricks from vacant buildings and selling them to builders. A thousand bricks, one scavenger reported, brought $200. [ [http://www.detnews.com/specialreports/2001/elmhurst/wedlead2/wedlead2.htm Government stuggles with vacant buildings] ."Detroit News", June 20, 2001.]

Though the 1960s saw the rise of drug use, it leveled off in ensuing decades. The Detroit 1970s gang Young Boys Inc. were influential in the drug trade, leading to collateral property crimes and violence.

Recent developments

"Renaissance" has been a perennial buzzword among generations of city leaders, particularly during the construction and completion of the Renaissance Center, but it was not until the 1990s that Detroit enjoyed something of a bona fide revival, much of it centered downtown, although the population of the city kept declining. In 1996 a state referendum paved the way for three Detroit casinos — MGM Grand Detroit, Motor City Casino and Greektown Casino — with the goal of increasing tourism and stemming the flow of gambling dollars to nearby Windsor, Ontario.

In 2000, Comerica Park replaced historic Tiger Stadium as the home of the Detroit Tigers, a move that brought some controversy, [ [http://www.detnews.com/2005/allstar/0507/09/allst-242013.htm Comerica Park has what Tiger Stadium didn't -- in many ways] . "The Detroit News"] and in 2002 Ford Field brought football's Detroit Lions back into Detroit from suburban Pontiac. [ [http://www.detroitlions.com/section_display.cfm?section_id=17&top=21&level=3&CFID=11818329&CFTOKEN=65852b8baea6f38f-EB7E4D5D-802A-2040-EF538025883083F2&jsessionid=9630fad15e0b$B8$F0$E Ford Field] . "Detroit Lions".] The 2004 opening of the Compuware Center gave downtown Detroit its first significant new office building in a decade. The soon to be constructed Cadillac Centre will positively affect the city. Significant landmarks such as the Fox Theatre, Detroit Opera House, and the Gem Theater have been restored and host concerts, musicals, and plays. Many downtown centers such as Greektown, Cobo Center and Campus Martius Park, as well as the Michigan State Fairgrounds on the northern border, draw patrons and host activities.

The city requested an investigation in 2000 by the United States Justice Department into the Detroit Police Department which was concluded in 2003 over allegations regarding its use of force and civil rights violations. [ [http://www.detroitmi.gov/police/dept/crib/crib.htm Quarterly Status Report to the Independent Federal Monitor] . "Detroit Police Department" Retrieved on April 8, 2007.] The city proceeded with a major reorganization of the Detroit Police Department.

In the early twenty-first century, the city hosted a number of major events, including the 2005 Baseball All-Star Game and 2006 Super Bowl XL. In preparation for these events, the city faced the challenge of cleaning up and improving its image for an international audience.

Keys to the city

Five people have been awarded the key to the city of Detroit: actor James Earl Jones, neurosurgeon Benjamin Carson, football star Jerome Bettis, businessman and sports team owner Chris Ilitch, and — in 1980, in recognition of large donations to a church — former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein.cite news
url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/03/26/iraq/main546287.shtml
publisher=CBS News
title=Guess Who Got The Key To Detroit?
date=2003-03-26|accessdate=2008-02-16] cite news
url=http://corner.nationalreview.com/post/?q=MTI5NTRiMTMyY2UxYzk4N2E2Y2JjNmJhZjVkMGM1Yzc
publisher=National Review
author=John J. Miller
title=The Key to My City
date=2006-02-03|accessdate=2008-02-16] cite news
url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/writers/don_banks/02/02/snap.judgments/2.html
title=Snap Judgements
publisher=Sports Illustrated
author=Don Banks
date=2006-02-02|accessdate=2008-02-16] [cite news
url=http://freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080215/NEWS06/802150360
title=Judge salutes Horton for making difference by embracing talent
author=David Ashenfelter
publisher=Detroit Free Press
date=2006-02-15|accessdate=2008-02-16]

Timeline

*1701 - July 24, Antoine de Lamothe Cadillac, with his lieutenant Alphonse de Tonty and a company of 100 men, establishes a trading post on the Detroit River under orders from the French King Louis XIV. They named it "Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit", in homage to the Count of Pontchartrain, the Royal Minister of Marine.
*1701 - Ste. Anne de Detroit Catholic Church is the first building built in Detroit, started within two days of Cadillac's landing.
*1760 - Major Robert Rogers and a group of his Rogers' Rangers take formal command of Fort Detroit in the name of Great Britain after the French defeat in the French and Indian War.
*1763 - Chief Pontiac besieges Detroit during Pontiac's Rebellion.
*1796 - American control over Detroit is established, thirteen years after it was assigned by treaty to the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War.
*1802 - February 1, the town of Detroit is incorporated by the territorial legislature.
*1805 - June 11, a fire burns virtually the entire city. The city's motto, "Speramus meliora; resurget cineribus" ("We hope for better things, it will rise from the ashes") dates from this event.
*1806 - September 13, the city of Detroit is incorporated by the territorial governing council.
*1809 - February 24, the territorial governing council repeals the 1806 incorporation of the city.
*1812 - August 16, Detroit surrenders without firing a shot to British army under General Isaac Brock in the War of 1812.
*1813 - September, The British retreat from Detroit, which served as a base for the invasion of Canada.
*1815 - October 24, the territorial governing council enacts the charter for the City of Detroit to be governed by a five-person board of trustees.
*1824 - August 5, the newly formed territorial legislature reorganizes city government, creating the Common Council and office of mayor.
*1837 - Detroit becomes capital of the State of Michigan (until 1847).
*1837 to 1838 - Small bands of self-proclaimed "Patriots", some operating from Detroit, invade Canada in the Patriot War.
*1863 - Anti-draft and race riot in Detroit.
*1890 - Reforming mayor Hazen Pingree establishes vegetable gardens for the poor, which came to be called "Pingree's Potato Patches".
*1903 - Ford Motor Company is founded by Henry Ford in Detroit.
*1929 - Ambassador Bridge construction complete.
*1930 - Detroit-Windsor Tunnel construction complete.
*1943 - A race riot, spurred by competition among black and white residents for wartime factory jobs, resulted in 34 deaths.
*1950 - Detroit's population reaches its height at 1.85 million.
*1961 - Jerome Cavanagh is elected mayor and launches a series of reforms.
*1963 - Great March to Freedom.
*1967 - On July 23, the 12th Street Riot, one of the worst riots in United States history, begins on 12th Street in the predominantly African American inner city (43 killed, 342 injured and 1,400 buildings burned).
*1968 - Focus: HOPE organization is founded by Fr. William Cunningham. The Detroit Tigers defeat the St. Louis Cardinals in the World Series in seven games.
*1973 - Coleman Young is elected Detroit's first black mayor -- a position he would hold for 20 years.
*1979–1980 Saddam Hussein makes large donations to a Detroit church and receives a key to the city. Hussein's relationship with Detroit began in 1979, when the Reverend Jacob Yasso of Chaldean Sacred Heart congratulated Hussein on his presidency. Yasso said that in return his church had received $450,000 from the former Iraqi dictator.
*1980 - The national economic malaise of the 1970s culminated in Detroit hosting the Republican National Convention which nominated Ronald Reagan who stayed at the Renaissance Center while in Detroit. The Detroit convention kicked off Reagan's campaign to a landslide election.
*1984 - The Detroit Tigers again win the World Series in five games.
*1987 - Pope John Paul II visits Detroit.
*1992 - November 5, black motorist Malice Green dies after struggling with white policemen Larry Nevers and Walter Budzyn during a traffic stop. The officers were later convicted and sentenced to prison. The convictions were overturned, but the officers were retried and convicted of lesser charges.
*1996 - In November, Michigan votes to allow the operation of three casinos in Detroit.
*1997 - In June, the Detroit Red Wings win their first Stanley Cup in 42 years.
*1999 - The Detroit Tigers play their final baseball game in classic Tiger Stadium, which had opened in 1912. The team relocated to the new Comerica Park downtown in 2000.
*2002 - The Detroit Lions football team begin play in the new, state-of-the-art Ford Field, returning to downtown Detroit after 27 years in suburban Pontiac.
*2004 - The "restored" Campus Martius Park opens in downtown Detroit. Featuring an ice-skating rink, it is the focal point of the city's new Winter Blast festival.
*2005 - Comerica Park hosts Major League Baseball's All-Star Game.
*2006 - In February, the city hosts Super Bowl XL, and in October, the Detroit Tigers, only three years after having a 119-loss season, defeat the Oakland A's in the American League Championship Series, winning the Penant. They then play in their first World Series since 1984, losing to their 1968 series rivals, the St. Louis Cardinals, in five games.
*2008 - Kwame Kilpatrick resigns from office as mayor.

ee also

*Detroit Historical Museum
*Flag of Detroit
*List of Registered Historic Places in Detroit, Michigan
*Michigan History magazine

Notes

References

*cite book |last=Burton |first=Clarence M. |title=The city of Detroit, Michigan, 1701-1922 |origyear=1928? |url=http://name.umdl.umich.edu/bad1447.0002.001 |accessdate=2007-04-10 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Library |location=Ann Arbor, Mich. |pages=pp. 1567-1568 |chapter=City of Detroit |chapterurl=
*cite book |last=Farmer |first=Silas |title=The history of Detroit and Michigan; or, The metropolis illustrated; a full record of territorial days in Michigan, and the annals of Wayne County |origyear =1889 |url=http://name.umdl.umich.edu/bad1459.0001.001 |accessdate=2007-04-10 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Library |location=Ann Arbor, Mich.
*cite book |last=Fuller |first=George Newman |title=Local history of Detroit and Wayne County / edited by George B. Catlin. |origyear=1928? |url=http://name.umdl.umich.edu/arh7780.0001.001 |accessdate=2007-04-10 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Library |location=Ann Arbor, Mich.

Further reading

*Cite book | author=Bak, Richard | year=2001 | title=Detroit Across Three Centuries | publisher=Thompson Gale| id=ISBN 1585360015
*Cite book | author=Burton, Clarence M | year=1896 | title=Cadillac's Village: A History of the Settlement, 1701-1710 | publisher=Detroit Society for Genealogical Research | id=ISBN 0-943112-21-4
*Cite book | author=Burton, Clarence M | year=1912 | title=Early Detroit: A sketch of some of the interesting affairs of the olden time | publisher=Burton Abstracts | id=ASIN B00085GX94
*Cite book | author=Delicato, Armando| title= Italians in Detroit (Images of America)| year= 2005| publisher= Arcadia Publishing | id=ISBN 0738539856
*cite book |last=Denissen |first=Christian |title=The Genealogy of French Families of the Detroit River Region, 1701-1936|origyear = |url= |accessdate= |year=1987 |publisher=Detroit Society for Genealogical Research |id=ISBN 0943112028
*Cite book | author=Farmer, Silas | year=1889 | title=History of Detroit and Wayne County and Early Michigan | publisher=Omnigraphics Inc; Reprint edition (October 1998) | id=ISBN 1-55888-991-4
*Cite book | author=Parkman, Francis | title=The Conspiracy of Pontiac | year=1994 | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | id=ISBN 0-8032-8737-2
*Cite book | author=Poremba, David Lee | title=Detroit: A Motor City History | publisher=Arcadia Publishing | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-7385-2435-2
*Cite book | author=Poremba, David Lee | title=Detroit in Its World Setting (timeline) | publisher=Wayne State University | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-8143-2870-9
*Powell, L. P (1901). "Detroit, the Queen City," "Historic Towns of the Western States" (New York).
*Cite book| author=Woodford, Arthur M.|title=This is Detroit 1701-2001|publisher=Wayne State University Press| year=2001|id=ISBN 0-8143-2914-4

External links

* [http://www.detroitmemories.com Detroit Memories]
* [http://www.detroithistorical.org Detroit Historical Museums & Society]
* [http://www.aperion.com/misc/Old_Detroiter_If.htm Old Detroiter?]
* [http://www.historydetroit.com/ HistoryDetroit]
* [http://www.experiencedetroit.com/ Experience Detroit]