Twentieth-century French philosophy

Twentieth-century French philosophy is a strand of contemporary philosophy generally associated with post-World War II French thinkers, although it is directly influenced by previous philosophical movements.

Bergson

The work of Henri Bergson (1859-1941) is often considered the division point between nineteenth and twentieth century French philosophy. Essentially, despite respect for mathematics and science, he pioneered the French movement of scepticism towards using scientific methods to attempt to understand human nature and metaphysical reality. Positivism, of which, for example, the French sociologist Durkheim was interested in at the time, was not appropriate. Unlike later philosophers, Bergson was highly influenced by biology, particularly Darwin's "Origin of Species", which was released the year of Bergson's birth. This led Bergson to discuss the 'Body' and 'Self' in detail, arguably prompting the fundamental ontological and epistemological questions to be raised later in the 20th century.

Philosophy of science

Following debates concerning the foundation of mathematics, around the mathematician and philosopher Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), who opposed Bertrand Russell and Frege, various French philosophers started working on philosophy of science, among them Gaston Bachelard, who developed a discontinuist view of science, Jean Cavaillès (1903-1944), or Georges Canguilhem, who would be a strong influence of Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze, and Jules Vuillemin. In his introduction to Canguilhem's "The Normal and the Pathological", Foucault wrote:

"Take away Canguilhem and you will no longer understand much about Althusser, Althusserism and a whole series of discussions which have taken place among French Marxists; you will no longer grasp what is specific to sociologists such as Bourdieu, Robert Castel, Jean-Claude Passeron and what marks them so strongly within sociology; you will miss an entire aspect of the theoretical work done by psychoanalysts, particularly by the followers of Lacan. Further, in the entire discussion of ideas which preceded or followed the movement of '68, it is easy to find the place of those who, from near or from afar, had been trained by Canguilhem."

Starting in the 1980s, Bruno Latour (b. 1947), teacher at the engineering school "École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris", would develop the actor-network theory, a distinctive approach to social theory and research, best known for its controversial insistence on the agency of nonhumans.

The Sorbonne

Many philosophers and historians of philosophers were teachers at the Sorbonne University, including Léon Brunschvicg (1869-1944), co-founder of the "Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale" with Xavier Léon and Elie Halévy, Martial Guéroult (1891-1976) and successor of Etienne Gilson at the Collège de France in 1951, Ferdinand Alquié, etc.

Personalism

Emmanuel Mounier (1905–1950) was a guiding spirit in the French personalist movement, and founder and director of "Esprit", the magazine which was the organ of the movement. Mounier, who was the child of peasants, was a brilliant scholar at the Sorbonne. In 1929, when he was only twenty-four, he came under the influence of the French writer, Charles Péguy, to whom he ascribed the inspiration of the personalist movement.

Gabriel Honoré Marcel (1889 – 1973) was a leading Catholic existentialist, the author of about 30 plays. He shared a great deal in common with Mounier's ideas. They both show Bergson's influence in their assessment of 'being', specifically the 'mystery of being'. The religious undertones of both Mounier and Marcel (in particular) perhaps undermine their status,Fact|date=August 2007 but their interest in the problems of technology moved French philosophy forward.

Jean-Paul Sartre and Existentialism

Sartre (1905-1980) was, if only by birth, the first truly 20th-century French philosopher. He was probably also the most famous - being a dramatist, screenwriter, novelist and critic. The Existentialism Sartre is concerned with is also a more well-known philosophical movement to the lay-person than, for instance, deconstruction. Phenomenology and Marxism were one of his key concerns. A leading figure of the French Left, Sartre was opposed on his right by Raymond Aron.

Merleau-Ponty

Maurice Merleau Ponty (1908 – 1961) was a French phenomenologist philosopher, strongly influenced by Edmund Husserl. Merleau-Ponty is classified as an existentialist thinker because of his close association with Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, and his distinctly Heideggerian conception of Being.

Marxist philosophers

It is important to distinguish between Marx and Marxist thinkers. Often, Marx is coined almost discursively to assess class-relations.Clarifyme|date=September 2008 It is also important to realise that, as well as there being varying degrees and interpretations of Marxism, many French Philosophers held changing views on the ideology within their lifetime. Sartre, for instance, became more influenced by Marx throughout his life.

Alexandre Kojève (1902 – 1968) was a Marxist and Hegelian political philosopher, who had a substantial influence on intellectual life in France in the 1930s and on the reading of Hegel in France.

Louis Althusser (1918 – 1990) was a key Marxist philosopher, sometimes considered to be the structuralist equivalent to Marxism that Lacan was to Psychoanalysis and Claude Lévi-Strauss to ethnology (although all of them rejected the brand-name) and still very highly cited academic in a number of fields. One of his first seminal work was "Reading Capital" (1965), co-written with Etienne Balibar, Roger Establet, Jacques Rancière and Pierre Macherey. He opposed Hegel's teleological approach to history, drew on Bachelard's concept of "epistemological break" and defined philosophy as "class struggle in theory."

Others Marxist authors include Henri Lefebvre (1901-1999), who partly influenced the Situationist and Guy Debord, the group "Socialisme ou Barbarie" aforementioned, etc.

tructuralism

The Structuralist movement in French philosophy was highly influenced by the Swiss thinker Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913). His ideas laid the foundation for many of the significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century. He is widely considered the 'father' of 20th-century linguistics.

Jacques Lacan (1901 - 1981) was specifically interested in the philosophy of psychoanalysis. He could be said to be relevant to the more modern foundations of Discursive psychology.

Post-structuralism

Post-structuralism is, like structuralism, an ambiguous term in some respect. It is first important to understand the nature of the schools of thought - as often it seems they aren't truly separate 'schools' at all. It is also interesting to note how, much like Sartre's interested in art, both of these movements are important to a wide range of academic disciplines. Eg, English Literature, Cultural Studies, Media Studies/Film Studies, Anthropology, etc etc. This is because it is particularly relevant to Discourse analysis.

Michel Foucault (1926 - 1984), although sometimes considered close to structuralism, quickly drew apart from this movement, developing a specific approach to semiology and history which he dubbed "archeology." His influence is broad-ranging, and his work includes books such as "Madness and Civilization" (1961), "The Order of Things" (1966), "" (1975) or the "The History of Sexuality".

Gilles Deleuze, who wrote the "Anti-Oedipus" (1972) with Félix Guattari, criticizing psychoanalysis, was, like Foucault, one of the key thinker who introduced a thorough reading of Nietzsche in France, following Georges Bataille's early attempts — Bataille published the "Acéphale" review from 1936 to 1939, along with Pierre Klossowski, another close reader of Nietzsche, Roger Caillois and Jean Wahl. He wrote books such as "Difference and Repetition", "The Logic of Sense", ' (1970), and also wrote on Bergson, Leibniz, Nietzsche, etc., as well as other works on Cinema ('). Both Deleuze and Foucault attempted to take distance from the strong influence of Marxism and psychoanalysis in their works, in part by silently reinterpreting Marx and Freud.

Jacques Derrida (1930 – 2004) was an Algerian-born French philosopher, known as the founder of deconstruction. His voluminous work had a profound impact upon continental philosophy and literary theory.

Jean-François Lyotard (1924 – 1998) was a deconstructionist philosopher and literary theorist. He is well-known for his articulation of Postmodernism after the late 1970s.

Other authors include Jean Baudrillard, who started with a criticism of consumption society in the 1970s to evolve towards a reflexion on simulation and virtual reality, Paul Virilio, both a philosopher and an urbanist, Cornelius Castoriadis, who was, along with Claude Lefort, co-founder of "Socialisme ou Barbarie" and criticized orthodox Marxism, Alain Badiou, François Laruelle, who developed "Non-philosophy" starting in the 1980s, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Paul Ricoeur (administrator of the University of Nanterre during May '68), Emmanuel Levinas, Vincent Descombes, etc.

20th-century French feminism

The Feminist movement in contemporary France (or at least that of which can be placed in the 'Philosophy' genre) is characterised more by deconstructionism and Marxism than much Anglo American Feminism. Key thinkers include psychoanalytic and cultural theorist, Luce Irigaray (born 1930), and psychoanalyst and writer Julia Kristeva (born 1941). See also Simone de Beauvoir.

See also

*Collège de France, one of the most reputated institution for scholars in France
*Hermeneutics
*List of philosophers born in the nineteenth century
*List of philosophers born in the twentieth century
*French feminism
*Roland Barthes

References