Saturniidae

Taxobox
name = Saturniids


image_width = 250px
image_caption = Promethea silkmoth, "Callosamia promethea"
regnum = Animalia
phylum = Arthropoda
classis = Insecta
ordo = Lepidoptera
unranked_familia = Macrolepidoptera
superfamilia = Bombycoidea
familia = Saturniidae
familia_authority =
subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
subdivision =
Oxyteninae

Cercophaninae

Arsenurinae

Ceratocampinae

Hemileucinae

Agliinae

Ludiinae

Salassinae

Saturniinae
The Saturniidae, collectively known as "saturniids", are among the largest and mostspectacular of the Lepidoptera, with an estimated 1,300 to 1,500 different described species existing worldwide (Grimaldi and Engel, 2005). The Saturniidae family includes the giant silkmoths, royal moths, and emperor moths.

Adults are characterized by large size, heavy bodies covered in hair-like scales, lobed wings, reduced mouthparts, and small heads. They lack a frenulum but the hind wings overlap the forewings, producing the same function (Tuskes et al., 1996). These moths are sometimes brightly colored and often have translucent eyespots or windows on their wings.
Sexual dimorphism varies by species, but males can always be distinguished by their larger, broader antennae. Most adults possess wingspans between 1 to 6 inches (2.5 to 15 cm), but some tropical species, such as the atlas moth ("Attacus atlas"), may boast incredible wingspans of up to 12 inches (30 cm).

Distribution

The majority of "saturniid" species occur in wooded tropical or subtropical regions, with the greatest diversity in the New World Tropics and Mexico (Tuskes et al., 1996), though they are found all over the world. There are approximately one dozen described species living in Europe, one of which, the Emperor Moth, occurs in the
British Isles, and 68 described species living in North America, 42 of which reside north of Mexico and Southern California.

Life cycle

Some saturniids produce more than one brood a year. Spring and summer broods hatch in a matter of weeks; autumn broods enter a state known as diapause and emerge the following spring. How the pupae know when to hatch early or hibernate is not yet fully understood, though research suggests that day length during the larvae's 5th instar plays a major role. Longer days may prompt pupae to develop early, while shorter days result in pupal diapause. The number of broods is flexible, and a single female may produce both fast-developing and slow-developing individuals, or they may produce different numbers of broods in different years or parts of the range (Tuskes et al., 1996). In some species, spring and summer broods look different, with different genes activated by environmental conditions ("Actias luna, Callosamia securifera") (Tuskes et al., 1996).

Eggs

Depending on the moth, a single female may lay up to 200 eggs on a chosen host plant. Others lay singly or in small groups (Scoble, 1995). They are round, slightly flattened, smooth and translucent or whitish.

Larvae

Saturniid larvae are large (50 to 100 mm in the final instar), stout and cylindrical. Most have tubercules that are often also spiny or hairy. (The other caterpillars in this size range are the Sphingidae, which are seldom hairy and tend to have diagonal stripes on their sides.) Many are cryptic in coloration, with countershading or disruptive coloration to reduce detection, but some are more colourful. Some have stinging hairs (Scoble, 1995). A few larval species have been noted to produce clicking sounds with their mandibles when disturbed (e.g. Antheraea polyphemus and Actias luna). It has been hypothesized that the clicks serve as aposematic warning signals to a regurgitation defense(Brown et al., 2007). Most are solitary feeders, but again, some are gregarious. The Hemileucinae have stinging hairs and are gregarious when young (Tuskes et al., 1996). Most larvae feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs, a few, such as "Automeris louisiana" and "A. patagonensis" feed on grasses. They moult at regular intervals, usually four to six times before entering the pupal stage. Prior to pupation there is a wandering stage, and the caterpillar may change colour, becoming more cryptic just before this stage (Tuskes et al., 1996).

Pupae

Most larvae spin a silken cocoon in the leaves of a preferred host plant or in leaf litter on the ground, or crevices in rocks and logs. While not closely related to the silkworm ("Bombyx mori", Bombycidae), these cocoons can be gathered and used to make silk fabric. However, larvae of the regal moth ("Citheronia regalis") and imperial moth ("Eacles imperialis") burrow and pupate in a small chamber beneath the soil. This is common in the Ceratocampinae and Hemileucinae. Unlike most silk moths, those that pupate underground do not use much silk in the construction (Tuskes et al., 1996).Once enclosed in the cocoon, pupae undergo metamorphosis.

Adults

Adult females emerge with a complete set of mature ova and "call" males by emitting
pheromones (specific "calling" times vary by species). Males can detect these chemical signals up to a mile away with help from sensitive receptors located on the tips of their featherlike antennae. The males will fly several miles in one night to locate a female and mate with her; females generally will not fly until after they have mated.

Since the mouthparts of adult saturniids are vestigial and digestive tracts are absent, adults subsist on stored lipids acquired during the larval stage. As such, adult behavior is devoted almost entirely to reproduction, but the end result (due to lack of feeding) is a lifespan of a week or less.

Importance

A few species are important defoliators, including "Coloradia pandora" on pines, "Hemileuca oliviae" on range grasses, "Anisota senatoria" on oaks. Other species provide silk for fabric, such as "Samia cynthia" and "Antheraea pernyi". "Lonomia obliqua" produces possibly the most deadly toxin of any known animal.

pecies

(Note: This list is by no means complete.)

*Subfamily Agliinae -- one genus, "Aglia"
*Subfamily Arsenurinae -- 10 Neotropical genera
*Subfamily Ceratocampinae -- 27 genera, New World
**Genus "Anisota"
***"Anisota stigma" Spiny oakworm moth
***"Anisota senatoria" Orangestriped oakworm
**Genus "Citheronia"
***"Citheronia regalis" Regal moth
***"Citheronia sepulcralis" Pine-devil moth
***"Citheronia splendens" Splendid Royal moth
**Genus "Dryocampa"
***"Dryocampa rubicunda" Rosy maple moth
**Genus "Eacles"
***"Eacles imperialis" Imperial moth
**Genus "Syssphinx"
***"Syssphinx albolineata"
***"Syssphinx bicolor"
***"Syssphinx bisecta"
***"Syssphinx blanchardi"
***"Syssphinx heiligbrodti"
***"Syssphinx hubbardi"
***"Syssphinx montana"
***"Syssphinx raspa"
*Subfamily Hemileucinae -- 51 genera, New World
**Genus "Automeris"
***"Automeris io", Io moth
**Genus "Coloradia"
***"Coloradia pandora" Pandora moth
**Genus "Lonomia"
**Genus "Ormiscodes"
***"Ormiscodes cinnamomea"
***"Ormiscodes socialis"
***"Ormiscodes schmidtnielseni"
*Subfamily Ludiinae -- 8 genera, African
*Subfamily Salassinae -- 1 genus, "Salassa" Tropical
*Subfamily Saturniinae -- 59 genera, global
**Genus "Actias"
***"Actias artemis"
***"Actias dubernardi"
***"Actias gnoma"
***"Actias heterogyna" South China moon moth
***"Actias isis"
***"Actias luna" Luna moth
***"Actias maenas" Malaysian moon moth
***"Actias ningpoana"
***"Actias selene" Indian moon moth
***"Actias sinensis"
***"Actias truncatipennis"
**Genus "Agapema"
***"Agapema anona"
***"Agapema galbina"
***"Agapema homogena"
**Genus "Antheraea"
***"Antheraea frithi"
***"Antheraea godmani"
***"Antheraea harti"
***"Antheraea oculea"
***"Antheraea polyphemus" Polyphemus moth
***"Antheraea pernyi" Chinese oak silkmoth
***"Antheraea yamamai"
**Genus "Antheraeopsis"
***"Antheraeopsis paniki"
**Genus "Athletes"
***"Athletes ethra"
***"Athletes gigas"
**Genus "Argema"
***"Argema mimosae" African moon moth
***"Argema mittrei"
**Genus "Attacus"
***"Attacus atlas" Atlas moth
***"Attacus dohertyi"
***"Attacus erebus"
***"Attacus lorquinii"
**Genus "Aurivillius"
***"Aurivillius aratus"
***"Aurivillius triramis"
**Genus "Bunaea"
***"Bunaea alcinoe"
**Genus "Bunaeopsis"
***"Bunaeopsis oubie"
**Genus "Samia"
***"Samia cynthia" Ailanthus silkmoth
**Genus "Callosamia"
***"Callosamia angulifera"
***"Callosamia promethea" Promethea silkmoth
**Genus "Graellsia"
***"Graellsia isabellae"
**Genus "Hyalophora"
***"Hyalophora euryalus" Ceanothus silkmoth
***"Hyalophora cecropia" Cecropia moth
***"Hyalophora columbia" Columbia silkmoth
**Genus "Loepa"
***"Loepa katinka" Golden Emperor
***"Loepa sikkima"
**Genus "Caligula"
***"Caligula thibeta" (Westwood, 1853)
***"Caligula simla" (Westwood, 1847)
***"Caligula anna" (Moore, 1865)
***"Caligula grotei" (Moore, 1858)
***"Caligula lindia" Moore, 1865
***"Caligula cachara" Moore, 1872
**Genus "Saturnia"
***"Saturnia pyri" Great peacock moth
***"Saturnia pavonia" Emperor moth
**Genus "Opodiphthera"
***"Opodiphthera eucalypti" Emperor Gum Moth

References

*Brown, SG, Boettner, GH and Yack, JE. 2007. Clicking caterpillars: acoustic aposematism in Antheraea polyphemus and other Bombycoidea. Journal of Experimental Biology, 210: 993-1005.
*Burnie, David (2001). "Smithsonian: Animal". First American Edition, Oct 2001. DK Publishing Inc., 375 Hudson St. New York, NY 10014.
*Mitchell, Robert T (2002). "Butterflies and Moths: A Golden Guide From St. Martin's Press". St. Martin's Press, New York.
* Scoble, MJ. 1995. The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity. Second ed. Oxford University Press.
*Tuskes, PM, JP Tuttle and MM Collins. 1996. The wild silk moths of North America. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3130-1

Further reading

* (2006): The Saturniidae Fauna of Napo Province, Ecuador: An Overview (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). "SHILAP Revista de Lepidopterología" 34(134): 125-139. [http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/pdf/455/45513402.pdf PDF] — inventory of about 200 Saturniidae taxa

External links

* [http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/distr/lepid/moths/usa/saturnii.htm Moths of North America: Saturniidae]
* [http://www.scib.gc.ca/spp_pages/misc_moths/phps/bom_e.php Bombycoidea of Canada]
* [http://www.troplep.org/famlist.htm Family Classification of Lepidoptera]
* [http://www.uky.edu/Agriculture/Entomology/entfacts/misc/ef008.htm University of Kentucky Entomology: Saturniid Moths]
* [http://www.geocities.com/mothman15/ Moths (Saturniidae) of the United States]
*Flickr-inline|saturniidae
* [http://www.silkmoths.bizland.com/kirbywolfe.htm Saturniidae pictures]
* [http://www.kiva.net/~daylight/moth.html How to rear saturniid moths]
* [http://tpittaway.tripod.com/silk/satlist.htm Saturniidae of Europe]
* [http://www.saturnia.de/ Saturnia-Homepage]