- High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries (AD 1000–1299). The High Middle Ages were preceded by the
Early Middle Ages and followed by theLate Middle Ages , which by convention end around 1500.The key historical trend of the High Middle Ages was the rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250 the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century. This trend was checked in the Late Middle Ages by a series of calamities, notably the
Black Death but also including numerous wars and economic stagnation.From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian
invasions and became more politically organized. TheViking s had settled in theBritish Isles ,France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in theirScandinavia n homelands. TheMagyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a ChristianKingdom of Hungary was recognized in central Europe. With the brief exception of theMongol invasions , major barbarian incursions ceased.In the 11th century, populations north of the
Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of theRoman Empire . In what is known as the "great clearances," vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of theFrankish Empire to new frontiers in eastern Europe, beyond theElbe River , tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded European colonies in theLevant , the majority of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered from the Moors, and theNormans colonized southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern.The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in
Western Europe and the ascent of the great Italiancity-state s. The still-powerful Roman Church called armies from across Europe to a series ofCrusades against theSeljuk Turks , who occupied theHoly Land . The rediscovery of the works ofAristotle ledThomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy ofScholasticism . In architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed during this era.Historical events and politics
British Isles
:"Main articles:
Britain in the Middle Ages andScotland in the High Middle Ages In
England , theNorman Conquest of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by a Francophone nobility. The Normans invaded Ireland in force in 1169 and soon established themselves throughout most of the country, though their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise,Scotland andWales were subdued to vassalage at about the same time, though Scotland later regained her independence. TheExchequer was founded in the 12th century under King Henry I, and the first parliaments were convened. In 1215, after the loss ofNormandy , King John signed theMagna Carta into law, which limited the power of English monarchs.candinavia
:"Main articles: Histories of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden"
From the mid-tenth to the mid-eleventh centuries, the
Scandinavia n kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end toViking raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King Cnut ofDenmark ruled over both England andNorway . After Knut’s death in 1035, England and Norway were lost, and with the defeat of Valdemar II in 1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging fromGreenland to theIsle of Man , whileSweden , underBirger jarl , built up a power base in theBaltic Sea .France and Germany
:"Main articles:
France in the Middle Ages ,Germany in the Middle Ages "By the time of the High Middle Ages, the
Carolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms calledFrance andGermany , although not with their modern boundaries. Germany was under the banner of theHoly Roman Empire , which reached its high-water mark of unity and political power.outhern Europe
:"Main articles:
Spain in the Middle Ages ,Italy in the Middle Ages "Much of the
Iberian peninsula had been occupied by theMoors after 711, although the northernmost portion was divided between several Christian states. In the 11th century, and again in the thirteenth, the Christian kingdoms of the north gradually drove the Muslims from central and most of southern Iberia.In Italy, independent city states grew affluent on eastern maritime trade. These were in particular the thalassocracies of
Pisa ,Amalfi ,Genoa andVenice .Eastern Europe
The High Middle Ages saw the height and decline of the Slavic state of
Kievan Rus' and the emergence of Poland. Later, theMongol invasion in the 13th century had great impact onEastern Europe , as many countries of that region were invaded, pillaged, conquered and vassalized.During the first half of this period (c.1025-1185) the
Byzantine Empire dominated the Balkans south of the Danube, and under the Comnenian emperors there was a revival of prosperity and urbanisation; however, their domination of the region came to an end with a successfulBulgaria n rebellion in 1185, and henceforth the region was divided between the Byzantines inGreece and some parts of Macedonia andThrace , theBulgarians inMoesia and most of Thrace and Macedonia and the Serbians to the north-west. The Eastern and Western churches had formally split in the 11th century, and despite occasional periods of co-operation during the twelfth century, in 1204 theFourth Crusade used treachery to captureConstantinople . This severely damaged the Byzantines, and their power was ultimately usurped by theOttoman Empire in the 15th century. The power of theLatin Empire , however, was shortly lived after the Crusader army was routed by the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan in thebattle of Adrianople (1205) .Climate and agriculture
The
Medieval Warm Period , the period from 10th century to about the 14th century inEurope , was a relatively warm and gentle interval ended by the generally colderLittle Ice Age . Farmers grewwheat well north intoScandinavia , andwine grapes in northernEngland , although the maximum expansion of vineyards appears to occur within the Little Ice Age period. This protection fromfamine allowed Europe's population to increase, despite the famine in 1315 that killed 1.5 million people. This increased population contributed to the founding of new towns and an increase in industrial and economic activity during the period. Food production also increased during this time as new ways of farming were introduced, including the use of a heavier plow, horses instead of oxen, and a three-field system that allowed the cultivation of a greater variety of crops than the earlier two-field system - notably legumes, the growth of which prevented the depletion of important nitrogen from the soil.The rise of chivalry
Household heavy cavalry (
knight s) became common in the 11th century across Europe, and tournaments were invented. Although the heavy capital investment in horse and armor was a barrier to entry, knighthood became known as a way for serfs to earn their freedom. In the 12th century, theCluny monks promoted ethical warfare and inspired the formation of orders of chivalry, such as the Templar Knights. Inherited titles of nobility were established during this period. In 13th-century Germany, knighthood became another inheritable title, although one of the less prestigious, and the trend spread to other countries.Religion
The Church
The
East-West Schism of 1054 formally separated the Christian church into two parts: Western Catholicism in Western Europe andEastern Orthodoxy in the east. It occurred whenPope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I excommunicated each other, mainly over disputes as to the existence of papal authority over the four Easternpatriarch s.The Crusades
One of the most important events of the period was the series of religious wars known as the Crusades, in which
Christian s fought to retakePalestine from theSeljuk Turks . The Crusades impacted all levels of society in the High Middle Ages, from the kings and emperors who themselves led the Crusades, to the lowest peasants whose lords were often absent in the east. The height of the Crusades was the 12th century, following the First Crusade and the foundation of theCrusader state s; in the 13th century and beyond, Crusades were also directed against fellow Christians, and in eastern and northern Europe, non-Muslim pagans.Military orders
In the context of the crusades, monastic
military order s were founded that would become the template for the late medievalchivalric order s. TheKnights Templar were a Christian military order founded after theFirst Crusade to help protect Christian pilgrims from hostile Muslims. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in 1307Philip the Fair (Philippe le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and dismantled on charges of heresy. They were secretly pardoned byPope Clement V in 1314.cholasticism
The new
Christian method of learning was influenced byAnselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) from the rediscovery of the works ofAristotle through Medieval Jewish and Muslim Philosophy (Maimonides ,Avicenna , andAverroes ) and those whom he influenced, most notablyAlbertus Magnus ,Bonaventure and Abélard. Scholastics believed inempiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. They opposedChristian mysticism , and the Platonist-Augustinian beliefs in mind dualism and the view of the world as inherently evil. The most famous of the scholastics wasThomas Aquinas (later declared a "Doctor of the Church "), who led the move away from the Platonic and Augustinian and towards Aristotelianism. Aquinas developed aphilosophy of mind by writing that themind was at birth a "tabula rasa " ("blank slate") that was given the ability to think and recognize forms or ideas through a divine spark. Other notable scholastics includedRoscelin , Abélard, andPeter Lombard . One of the main questions during this time was theproblem of universals . Prominent opponents of various aspects of the scholastic mainstream includedDuns Scotus ,William of Ockham ,Anselm of Canterbury ,Peter Damian ,Bernard of Clairvaux , and theVictorines . ref|ScholasticismGolden age of monasticism
*The late 11th century/early-mid 12th century was the height of the golden age of
Christian monasticism (8th-12th centuries).
**Benedictine Order - black robed monks
**Cistercian Order - white robed monks
***Bernard of Clairvaux Mendicant orders
*The 13th century saw the rise of the
Mendicant order s such as the:
**Franciscan s (Friars Minor, commonly known as the Grey Friars), founded 1209
**Carmelite s (Hermits of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Carmel, commonly known as the White Friars), founded 1206–1214
** Dominicans (Order of Preachers, commonly called the Black Friars), founded 1215
**Augustinians (Hermits of St. Augustine, commonly called the austin Friars), founded 1256Heretical movements
Heresy existed in Europe before the 11th century but only in small numbers and of local character: a rogue priest, or a village returning to pagan traditions; but beginning in the 11th century mass-movement heresies appeared. The roots of this can be found with the rise of urban cities, free merchants and a new money-based economy. The rural values of monasticism held little appeal to urban people who began to form sects more in tune with urban culture. The first heretical movements originated in the newly urbanized areas such as southern France and northern Italy. They were mass movements on a scale the Church had never seen before, and the response was one of elimination for some, such as the Cathars, and the acceptance and integration of others, such as St. Francis, the son of an urban merchant who renounced money.Cathars
Catharism was a movement with Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporary
Roman Catholic Church as heretical. It existed throughout much ofWestern Europe , but its home was inLanguedoc and surrounding areas in southernFrance .The name "Cathar" most likely originated from Greek "katharos", "pure". One of the first recorded uses is
Eckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra Germania catharos appellat."The Cathars are also called Albigensians. This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler
Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town ofAlbi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was atToulouse and in the neighbouring districts.The
Albigensians were strong in southern France, northern Italy, and the southwesternHoly Roman Empire .
*Dualists believed that historical events were the result of struggle between a good force and an evil force and that evil ruled the world, but could be controlled or defeated throughasceticism and good works.
*Albigensian Crusade , Simon de Montfort,Montségur ,Quéribus Waldensians
Peter Waldo ofLyon was a wealthy merchant who gave up his wealth around 1175 after a religious experience and became a preacher. He founded theWaldensians which became a Christian sect believing that all religious practices should have scriptural basis. Waldo was denied the right to preach his sermons by the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which he did not obey and continued to speak freely until he was excommunicated in 1184. Waldo was critical of the Christian clergy saying they did not live according to the word. He rejected the practice of selling indulgences, as well as the common saint cult practices of the day.Trade and commerce
In Northern Europe, the
Hanseatic League , a federation of free cities to advance trade by sea, was founded in the 12th century, with the foundation of the city ofLübeck , which would later dominate the League, in 1158–1159. Many northern cities of the Holy Roman Empire became hanseatic cities, includingAmsterdam ,Cologne , Bremen,Hannover andBerlin . Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance,Bruges and the Polish city ofGdańsk (Danzig). InBergen, Norway and Novgorod, Russia the league had factories and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonising Eastern Europe beyond the Empire, intoPrussia andSilesia .In the late 13th century, a Venetian explorer named
Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel theSilk Road toChina . Westerners became more aware of the Far East when Polo documented his travels in "Il Milione ". He was followed by numerous Christian missionnaries to the East, such asWilliam of Rubruck ,Giovanni da Pian del Carpini ,Andrew of Longjumeau ,Odoric of Pordenone ,Giovanni de Marignolli ,Giovanni di Monte Corvino , and other travellers such asNiccolò da Conti .cience
::main|History of science in the Middle Ages|Medieval medicine
Philosophical and scientific teaching of the
Early Middle Ages was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe after the collapse of theWestern Roman Empire . Most of them were studied only in the Latin as knowledge of Greek was very limited.This scenario changed during the
Renaissance of the 12th century . The intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities. The increased contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during theReconquista and theCrusades , allowed Europeans access to scientific Arabic and Greek texts, including the works ofAristotle , Alhazen, andAverroes . The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities.At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, [Franklin , J., [http://web.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/renaissance.html "The Renaissance myth"] , Quadrant 26 (11) (Nov, 1982), 51-60. (Retrieved on-line at 06-07-2007)] allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural science contained in these texts began to be extended by notable
scholastics such asRobert Grosseteste ,Roger Bacon ,Albertus Magnus andDuns Scotus . Precursors of the modernscientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his "Opus Majus ".Technology
:main|Medieval technology|artes mechanicae
During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than a century there were more inventions developed and applied usefully than in the previous thousand years of human history all over the globe. The period saw major technological advances, including the adoption or invention of
windmill s,watermill s,printing (though not yet with movable type),gunpowder , theastrolabe ,spectacles ,scissors of the modern shape, a betterclock , and greatly improvedship s. The latter two advances made possible the dawn of theAge of Exploration . Many of these inventions were adapted from other countries, such as China. These inventions were influenced by foreign culture and society.Alfred Crosby described some of this technological revolution in "The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600" and other major historians of technology have also noted it.
* The earliest written record of awindmill is fromYorkshire ,England , dated 1185.
*Paper manufacture began inItaly around 1270.
* Thespinning wheel was brought toEurope (probably fromIndia ) in the 13th century.
* Themagnetic compass aided navigation, first reaching Europe some time in the late 12th century.
*Eyeglasses were invented inItaly in the late 1280s.
* Theastrolabe returned to Europe via Islamic Spain.
*Leonardo of Pisa introduces Arabic numerals to Europe with his bookLiber Abaci in 1202.
* The West's oldest known depiction of a stern-mountedrudder can be found on church carvings dating to around 1180.Arts
Visual arts
Art in the High Middle Ages includes these major periods or movements:
*Romanesque art - traditions from the Classical world (not to be confused withRomanesque architecture )
*Gothic art - Germanic traditions (not to be confused withGothic architecture ).
*Byzantine art - Byzantine traditions.
*Christian art Other areas of study include regional surveys (
Anglo-Saxon art andJewish art for example) or areas of speciality such asIlluminated manuscripts .Architecture
Gothic architecture superseded the Romanesque style by combining
flying buttress es, gothic (or pointed)arch es andribbed vault s. It was influenced by the spiritual background of the time, being religious in essence: thin horizontal lines and grates made the building strive towards the sky. Architecture was made to appear light and weightless, as opposed to the dark and bulky forms of the previous Romanesque style.Saint Augustine of Hippo taught that light was an expression of God. Architectural techniques were adapted and developed to build churches that reflected this teaching. Colorfulglass window s enhanced the spirit of lightness. As color was much rarer at medieval times than today, it can be assumed that these virtuoso works of art had an awe-inspiring impact on the common man from the street. High-rising intricate ribbed, and laterfan vault ings demonstrated movement toward heaven. Veneration of God was also expressed by the relatively large size of these buildings. A gothic cathedral therefore not only invited the visitors to elevate themselves spiritually, it was also meant to demonstrate the greatness of God. Thefloor plan of a gothic cathedral corresponded to the rules of scholasticism: According to Erwin Panofsky'sGothic Architecture and Scholasticism ,the plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections. These characteristics are exhibited by the most famous sacral building of the time:Notre Dame de Paris .Literature
A variety of cultures influenced the literature of the High Middle Ages, one of the strongest among them being Christianity. The connection to Christianity was greatest in
Latin literature , which influenced thevernacular languages in the literary cycle of theMatter of Rome . Other literary cycles, or interrelated groups of stories, included theMatter of France (stories aboutCharlemagne and his court), theAcritic songs dealing with the chivalry of Byzantium's frontiersmen, and perhaps the best known cycle, theMatter of Britain , which featured tales aboutKing Arthur , his court, and related stories fromBrittany ,Cornwall ,Wales andIreland . An anonymous German poet tried to bring the Germanic myths from theMigration Period to the level of the French and British epics, producing theNiebelungenlied . There was also a quantity of poetry and historical writings which were written during this period, such as "Historia Regum Britanniae " byGeoffrey of Monmouth .Southern France gave birth to
Provençal literature , which is best known fortroubadour s who sang ofcourtly love . It included elements from Latin literature and Arab-influencedSpain andNorth Africa . Later its influence spread to several cultures in Western Europe, Portugal, the Minnesänger in Germany, Sicily and Northern Italy, giving birth to the Italian Dolce Stil Nuovo of Petrarca and Dante, who wrote the most important poem of the time, the "Divine Comedy ".Music
The surviving music of the High Middle Ages is primarily religious in nature, since
music notation developed in religious institutions, and the application of notation to secular music was a later development. Early in the period,Gregorian chant was the dominant form of church music; other forms, beginning withorganum , and later includingclausula e,conductus and themotet , developed using the chant as source material.During the eleventh century,
Guido of Arezzo was one of the first to develop musical notation, which made it easier for singers to remember Gregorian chants.It was during the 12th and 13th centuries that Gregorian plainchant gave birth to polyphony, which appeared in the works of French
Notre Dame School (Léonin andPérotin ). Later it evolved into the "ars nova " (Philippe de Vitry ,Guillaume de Machaut ) and the musical genres of late Middle Ages. An important composer during the 12th century was thenun Hildegard of Bingen .The most significant secular movement was that of the
troubadour s, who arose inOccitania (currently Southern France) in the late 11th century. The troubadours were often itinerant, came from all classes of society, and wrote songs on a variety of topics, especiallycourtly love . Their style went on to influence thetrouvère s of northern France, theminnesinger s ofGermany , and the composers of secularmusic of the Trecento in northern Italy.Timeline
* 962 —
Otto I crownedHoly Roman Emperor
* 1003 — death ofPope Sylvester II
* 1027 — the SalianConrad II succeeds the last OttonianHenry II the Saint
* 1054 —East-West Schism
* 1066 —Battle of Hastings
* 1066-1067 Bayeux Tapestry
* 1073-1085 —Pope Gregory VII
* 1071 —Battle of Manzikert
* 1077 — Henry IV'sWalk to Canossa
* 1086 —Domesday Book
* 1086 —Battle of az-Zallaqah
* 1091 —Battle of Levounion
* 1096-1099 —First Crusade
* 1123 —First Lateran Council
* 1139 —Second Lateran Council
* 1145-1149 —Second Crusade
* 1147 —Wendish Crusade
* 1155-1190 —Frederick I Barbarossa
* 1158 — foundation of theHanseatic League
* 1185 — reestablishment of the Bulgarian Empire
* 1189-1192 —Third Crusade
* 1200–1204 —Fourth Crusade
* 1205 — battle of Adrianople
* 1209-1229 —Albigensian Crusade
* 1212 —Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
* 1215 —Magna Carta
* 1216 — recognition of theDominican Order
* 1215 —Fourth Lateran Council
* 1217–1221 —Fifth Crusade
* 1220-1250 — Frederick II
* 1223 — foundation of theFranciscan Order
* 1228–1229 —Sixth Crusade
* 1230 —Prussian Crusade
* 1230 —battle of Klokotnitsa
* 1237-1240 —Mongol invasion of Rus
* 1241-1242 —Mongol invasion of Europe
* 1241 —Battle of Legnica
* 1242 —Battle of the Ice
* 1248–1254 —Seventh Crusade
* 1257 — foundation of theCollège de Sorbonne
* 1274 — death ofThomas Aquinas ; "Summa Theologiae " published
* 1280 — death ofAlbertus Magnus
* 1291 — Acre, the last European outpost in theMiddle East , is captured by theMamluks underKhalil .
* 1321 — death ofDante Alighieri References
# John H. Mundy, "Europe in the High Middle Ages, 1150-1309" Harlow, England, Longman (2000) ISBN 0-582-36987-8
# [http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/WestCiv/MedievalMusic.Chron.html Music of the Middle Ages: 475-1500]
# [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0859627.html Middle Ages: The High Middle Ages on Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia at infoplease]
# [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/ent/A0840334.html Provençal literature on Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia at infoplease]
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