- 1260s
The 1260s is the decade starting
January 1 ,1260 and endingDecember 31 ,1269 .In the
Mongol Empire ,Kublai Khan became the supreme leader and moved his capital toBeijing ; while he fought the southern ChineseSong Dynasty , the empire saw its first significant military defeats — first inPalestine at the hands of theMamluks ofEgypt , and later in theCaucasus . The Mamluks, led by their new sultanBaibars , quickly became a regional power in theMiddle East by capturing a number ofcrusader states and repulsing Mongol attacks. TheEmpire of Nicaea succeeded in capturingConstantinople and the rest of theLatin Empire , thus re-establishing theByzantine Empire .In Europe, political strife and territorial disputes led to widespread warfare around the continent.
England witnessed theSecond Barons' War , acivil war fought over the aristocracy's disillusionment with King Henry III's attempts to maintain anabsolute monarchy . Thepope of the Catholic Church, aligned against theHohenstaufen dynasty of theHoly Roman Emperor , succeeded in eliminating the line when the last male heir,Conradin , was killed by papal allyCharles I of Sicily , a Frenchman. Meanwhile, KingOtakar II of Bohemia became the most powerful prince in Europe, expanding his territories through both warfare and inheritance. In other developments, bothIceland andGreenland accepted the overlordship ofNorway , butScotland was able to repulse a Norse invasion and broker a favorable peace settlement. InSpain , theReconquista continued as several important cities were recaptured from theMoors . Political reforms were instituted in the election procedures of thepope and thedoges of Venice , and the parliaments of Ireland and England met for the first time.Several important cultural achievements were made in the decade, including publication of
Roger Bacon 's important scientific work "Opus Majus" andThomas Aquinas ' "Summa contra Gentiles ". Masterpieces of architecture and sculpture were completed atcathedral s around Europe, including theCathedral of Chartres andNicola Pisano 'spulpit s for theDuomo di Siena andPisa 's Baptistery. In religion, theSukhothai kingdom inThailand adoptedBuddhism as its official religion. In Europeanti-Semitism intensified, as several authorities promulgated laws requiring Jews to wear identifyingyellow badge s, Jews were massacred in England, and theTalmud was attacked and censored by the Catholic Church.War and politics
Europe
War and peace
North and West Europe
*1260 - The Baltic Samogatians and
Curonians defeat theTeutonic knights in theBattle of Durbe .
*1263 - October - KingAlexander III of Scotland defeats the Viking armada of KingHaakon IV of Norway in theBattle of Largs .
*1263 - The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to theIcelandic Commonwealth and theIcelandic civil war .
*1266 - The war betweenScotland andNorway ends as KingAlexander III of Scotland and KingMagnus VI of Norway agree to theTreaty of Perth , which cedes theWestern Isles andIsle of Man to Scotland in exchange for a large monetary payment.Central and South Europe
*1260 -
September 4 - The forces of KingManfred of Sicily , in league with theGhibellines , defeat theGuelphs atMonte Aperto .
*1260 - War breaks out in theValais (today inSwitzerland ) as the Bishopric of Sion defends against an invasion by theCounty of Savoy .
*1261 - Byzantine Empire reemerges, Latin empire brought down
*1263 -Genoa captures the city ofChania onCrete from the Venetians.
*1264 - TheThuringian War of Succession ends.
*1266 -February 26 - In theBattle of Benevento , an army led by Charles, Count ofAnjou , defeats a combined German and Sicilian force led by KingManfred of Sicily . Manfred is killed in the battle andPope Clement IV invests Charles as king ofSicily andNaples .Iberian Peninsula
*1263 - King
James I of Aragon conquersCrevillente ,Spain from theMoors during theReconquista .
*1264 - InSpain , KingJames I of Aragon reconquers the cities ofOrihuela in Alicante andElx in Valencia from theMoors , ending over 500 years ofIslam ic rule.
*1265 - KingAlfonso X of Castile captures the city ofAlicante ,Spain from theMoors during theReconquista .
*1267 - KingAfonso III of Portugal and KingAlfonso X of Castile sign a treaty determining the southern border betweenPortugal andSpain as theGuadiana River, a border that remains to this day.outheast Europe
*1260 - King
Otakar II of Bohemia captures Styria from KingBela IV of Hungary in theBattle of Kressenbrunn .
*1261 -Bela IV ofHungary repels a Tatar invasion.
*1268 - KingStephen V of Hungary launches a war againstBulgaria .England: The Second Barons' War
*1261 - King
Henry III of England obtains apapal bull releasing him from theProvisions of Oxford , setting the stage for a civil war over the power struggle between the crown and the aristocracy ofEngland .
*1264 - Before May -Second Barons' War , an English civil war, begins.
*1264 -May 12 toMay 14 - TheBattle of Lewes is fought betweenSimon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and KingHenry III of England inSussex . By the end of the battle, de Montfort's forces capture both King Henry and his brother, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the "uncrowned king ofEngland ".
*1265 -January 20 - InWestminster , the first Englishparliament conducts its first meeting in thePalace of Westminster , now also known as the Houses of Parliament.
*1265 - Before August - Future King Edward I escapes captivity in the hands of Simon de Montfort.
*1265 -August 4 - TheBattle of Evesham is fought inWorcestershire , with the army of Edward defeating the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort and killing de Montfort and many of his allies. This is sometimes considered the death ofchivalry inEngland .
*1266 - October - The war winds down as supporters of the slain rebel leader Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in theDictum of Kenilworth .
*1267 - The Second Barons' War ends, as the rebels and KingHenry III of England agree to peace terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth.Political entities
*1260 - The
Duchy of Saxony is divided into Saxony-Lauenberg andSaxony-Wittenberg , marking the end of the first Saxon state.
*1261 - The population ofGreenland accepts the overlordship of the King of Norway.
*1262 -Strasbourg becomes anImperial Free City of theHoly Roman Empire .
*1262 - TheIcelandic Commonwealth enters into a treaty establishing a union withNorway and acknowledges Norwegian KingHaakon IV as its ruler.
*1264 - The state ofHesse gains its independence fromThuringia and becomes a free state of theHoly Roman Empire .
*1265 - TheIsle of Man comes under Scottish rule for a brief period of 10 years.
*1267 - EmperorBaldwin II of Constantinople gifts thePrincipality of Achaea to KingCharles I of Sicily in theTreaty of Viterbo in the hopes that Charles could help him restore theLatin Empire .
*1268 - The county ofWernigerode become a vassal state of themargrave ofBrandenburg .Political reform
*1264 -
June 18 - TheParliament of Ireland meets atCastledermot inCounty Kildare , the first definitively known meeting of this Irishlegislature .
*1264 to 1267 - The civil war inEngland known as theSecond Barons' War marks a high point of struggle for political power between the landed aristocracy of England and the King.
*1268 - New election procedures for the election of the doge are established inVenice in order to reduce the influence of powerful individual families.
*1268 -Pope Clement IV dies; the followingpapal election fails to choose a newpope for almost three years, precipitating the later creation of stringent rules governing the electoral procedures.People
*1262 - King
Mindaugas ofLithuania renouncesChristianity , returning to his pagan roots and reverting to Grand Duke of Lithuania.
*1263 -Mindaugas , the first and onlyChristian king ofLithuania , is assassinated by his cousinTreniota .
*1264 - In thePeerage of England , the titleBaron de Ros , the oldest continuously held peerage title in England, is created by writ of summons.
*1267 - KingHenry III of England acknowledges Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's title ofPrince of Wales in theTreaty of Montgomery .
*1268 -October 29 -Conradin , the last legitimate male heir of theHohenstaufen dynasty of Kings of Germany andHoly Roman Emperor s, is executed along with his companionFrederick I, Margrave of Baden byCharles I of Sicily , a political rival and ally to the hostile "Catholic church".
*1268 - TheHouse of Bourbon first rises to prominence with the marriage ofRobert, Count of Clermont to KingLouis IX of France 's daughter,Beatrice of Burgundy , heiress to the lordship of Bourbon.
*1269 - KingOtakar II of Bohemia inherits Carinthia and part ofCarniola , making him the most powerful prince within theHoly Roman Empire .Asia and Africa
Mongol Empire
*1260 -
May 5 -Kublai Khan becomes ruler of theMongol Empire .
*1260 -September 3 - TheMongols are defeated by theMamluks at theBattle of Ain Jalut in Palestine, marking the first decisive defeat of the Mongols and the point of maximum expansion of the Mongol Empire.
*1263 -Hulagu Khan is defeated in an attempted invasion of theGolden Horde , north of theCaucasus . This marks the beginning of the disintegration of theMongol Empire .
*1265 - Mongol raid againstThrace andByzantium , led byNogai Khan .
*1266 - Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, brother and uncle ofMarco Polo reachKublai Khan 's capitalKhanbaliq (nowBeijing ) inChina , setting the stage for Marco's famous expedition starting five years later. Kublai Khan sends the Polos back with a message requesting thepope dispatch western scholars to teach in theMongol Empire ; however, this request is largely ignored.
*1268 - TheBattle of Xiangyang , a six-year battle between the ChineseSong Dynasty and the Mongol forces ofKublai Khan , begins in what is todayHubei .
*1268 -Kublai Khan sends an emissary to theKamakura Shogunate ofJapan demanding an acknowledgment of souzerainty and payment oftribute ; the Japanese refuse, starting a diplomatic back-and-forth lasting until the Mongols attempt to invade in1274 .Mamluk sultanate of Egypt
*1260 -
September 3 - The Mamluks defeat the Mongols at theBattle of Ain Jalut in Palestine.
*1260 -October 24 - Saif ad-Din Qutuz, Mamluk sultan ofEgypt , is assassinated byBaibars , who seizes power for himself.
*1261 - Baibars establishes a puppetCaliph ate inCairo .
*1266 - Baibars expands his domain, capturing the city ofByblos (in present-dayLebanon ) and the important castle ofToron fromcrusader state s, and defeating theArmenia ns atCilicia .
*1268 -May 18 - ThePrincipality of Antioch , a crusader state, falls to Baibars after the Siege of Antioch; Baibars' destruction of the city ofAntioch was so great as to permanently negate the city's importance.Byzantine Empire
*1261 -
July 25 - The city ofConstantinople is recaptured by Nicaean forces under the command ofMichael VIII Palaeologus , thus re-establishing theByzantine Empire . The Byzantines also succeed in capturingThessalonica and the rest of theLatin Empire .North Africa
* The
Almohad dynasty ofcaliph s (not universally accepted) that once ruled most ofNorth Africa andAl-Andalus (MoorishSpain ) is extinguished when Idris II is murdered in the dynasty's last remaining possession,Marrakesh .
* The BerberMarinid completes the conquest ofMorocco , replacing the Almohad dynasty which it defeated in Marrakesh.outh Asia
*1260 - The
Sena Dynasty ofBengal falls.
*1260 - TheHindu Silharya Dynasty , which ruled an area aroundMumbai , ends.
*1267 -Malik ul Salih establishesSamudra Pasai , the first Muslim state inIndonesia .Culture
cience, literature, and industry
*1260 -
Jacobus de Varagine compiles his work, the "Golden Legend ", a latemedieval best-seller.
*1265 - TheBook of Aneirin , a Welshmanuscript ofpoetry , is penned.
*1265 - Thebrewing ofBudweiser Budvar beer begins inBohemia (now part of theCzech Republic ); Budweiser Budvar has been produced continuously there to this day.
*1266 - InFrance , thegold écu andsilver grosh coins are minted for the first time.
*1267 -Roger Bacon completes his work "Opus Majus" and sends it toPope Clement IV , who had requested it be written; the work contains wide-ranging discussion ofmathematics ,optics ,alchemy ,astronomy ,astrology , and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of amagnifying glass . Bacon also completes "Opus Minus", a summary of "Opus Majus", later in the same year.
*1268 - InFrance , the use ofhops as the exclusive flavoring agent used in the manufacture ofbeer is made compulsory.
*1269 -Pélerin de Maricourt first describesmagnetic pole s and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles.Art, architecture, and music
*1260 -
October 24 - The spectacularCathedral of Chartres is dedicated in the presence of KingLouis IX of France ; the cathedral is now aUNESCO World Heritage Site .
*1260 - Construction on theDunkeld Cathedral begins inPerthshire ,Scotland , as well as other important cathedrals inMeißen andSchwerin .
*1260 -Nicola Pisano sculpts the pulpit of thePisa Baptistery.
*1260 - Themosaic "Christ between the Virgin and St Minias" is made on the facade of Florence'sBasilica di San Miniato al Monte .
*1260 - German musical theoristFranco of Cologne publishes "Ars Cantus Mensurabilis", in which he advances a new theory of musical notation in which the length of a musical note is denoted by the shape of that note, a system still used today.
*1262 -Adam de la Halle writes the firstoperetta , "Le Jeu de la Feuillee".
*1263 - TheSavoy Palace is constructed inLondon by CountPeter II of Savoy .
*1267 - The "Grand Capital" is constructed inKhanbaliq (present-dayBeijing byKublai Khan , having moved the capital of theMongol Empire there three years prior.
*1268 -Nicola Pisano completes the famousoctagon al Gothic-stylepulpit at theDuomo di Siena .
* The construction ofBlair Castle inScotland is begun by John Comyn.Cities and institutions
*1262 - King
Mengrai of theLannathai kingdom in present dayThailand founds the city ofChiang Rai as the kingdom's first capital.
*1263 -Balliol College, Oxford is founded byJohn I de Balliol .
*1264 - Merton College is founded at theUniversity of Oxford byWalter de Merton .
*1264 -Kublai Khan , supreme leader of theMongol Empire , moves the empire's capital fromKarakorum inMongolia to the Chinese city ofKhanbaliq (nowBeijing ).
*1265 - Fire destroys parts of Old Cairo.
*1268 - Anearthquake inCilicia kills an estimated 60,000 people.Religion
Christianity
*1261 - January - Pope bans the movement of
Flagellants .
*1261 -August 29 -Urban IV becomesPope , the last man to do so without being a Cardinal first.
*1261 -Wurmsbach Abbey is established inSwitzerland .
*1262 -Richard of Chichester iscanonized as asaint ; he is best known for authoring the prayer later adapted into the song "Day by Day" in the musicalGodspell .
*1263 - The doctrines of theologianJoachim of Fiore are condemned as heresy by theRoman Catholic Church at asynod inArles .
*1264 -Thomas Aquinas completes his theological work "Summa contra Gentiles ".
*1265 - Correspondence fromPope Clement IV contains the first known mention of thering of the Fisherman , an item of papalregalia then used to seal personal correspondence from the pope and later forpapal bull s.
*1268 - Thecarnival inVenice is first recorded.
*1269 - TheEastern Orthodox Patriarchy of Antioch returns toAntioch after a 171-year exile, during which it had been replaced by theLatin Patriarch of Antioch .Judaism
*1263 -
Nahmanides , chiefrabbi ofCatalonia , defends theTalmud in an importantdisputation againstPablo Christiani before KingJames I of Aragon .
*1264 - April -Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford leads a massacre of theJew s atCanterbury .
*1264 - KingBoleslaus V of Poland promulgates legal protection for hisJew ish subjects, including protection from the kidnapping and forciblebaptism of Jewish children.
*1264 - InBarcelona , a commission of Dominicans censors portions of theTalmud for the first time by ordering the cancellation of passages found reprehensible from a Christian point of view.
*1267 - The leadership ofVienna forcesJew s to wear "Pileum cornutum",a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to theyellow badge s Jews were already forced to wear.
*1269 -June 19 - KingLouis IX of France orders allJew s found in public without an identifyingyellow badge to be fined ten livres ofsilver .Buddhism
*1260 - The newly formed
Sukhothai kingdom ofThailand adoptsTheravada Buddhism .Births
*1264 -
Pope Clement V (d.1314 )
*1265 -May 14 -Dante Alighieri , Italian poet (d.1321 )Deaths
*1263 -
November 14 -Alexander Nevsky ,Grand Prince ofNovgorod andVladimir
*1264 -October 2 -Pope Urban IV
*1265 -February 8 -Hulagu Khan , Mongol khan (b.1217 )
*1265 -August 4 -Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester
*1266 -Berke , khan of theGolden Horde of theMongol Empire
*1266 -Birger Jarl , Swedish regent and founder ofStockholm
*1268 -October 29 -Conradin , duke ofSwabia and King of Jerusalem andSicily (b.1252 )
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