Nanoelectromechanical system

Part of a series of articles on Nanoelectronics Single-molecule electronics Molecular scale electronics Molecular logic gate Molecular wires Solid state nanoelectronics Nanocircuitry Nanowires Nanolithography NEMS Nanosensor Related approaches Nanoionics Nanophotonics Nanomechanics See also Nanotechnology v · d · e

Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are devices integrating electrical and mechanical functionality on the nanoscale. NEMS form the logical next miniaturization step from so-called microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS devices. NEMS typically integrate transistor-like nanoelectronics with mechanical actuators, pumps, or motors, and may thereby form physical, biological, and chemical sensors. The name derives from typical device dimensions in the nanometer range, leading to low mass, high mechanical resonance frequencies, potentially large quantum mechanical effects such as zero point motion, and a high surface-to-volume ratio useful for surface-based sensing mechanisms.^[1] Uses include accelerometers, or detectors of chemical substances in the air.

Overview

Because of the scale on which they can function, NEMS are expected to significantly impact many areas of technology and science and eventually replace MEMS. As noted by Richard Feynman in his famous talk in 1959, There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, there are a lot of potential applications of machines at smaller and smaller sizes; by building and controlling devices at smaller scales, all technology benefits. Among the expected benefits include greater efficiencies and reduced size, decreased power consumption and lower costs of production in electromechanical systems.^[1]

In 2000, the first very-large-scale integration (VLSI) NEMS device was demonstrated by researchers from IBM.^[2] Its premise was an array of AFM tips which can heat/sense a deformable substrate in order to function as a memory device. In 2007, the International Technical Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS)^[3] contains NEMS Memory as a new entry for the Emerging Research Devices section.

Importance for AFM

A key application of NEMS is atomic force microscope tips. The increased sensitivity achieved by NEMS leads to smaller and more efficient sensors to detect stresses, vibrations, forces at the atomic level, and chemical signals.^[4] AFM tips and other detection at the nanoscale rely heavily on NEMS. If implementation of better scanning devices becomes available, all of nanoscience could benefit from AFM tips.

Approaches to miniaturization

Two complementary approaches to fabrication of NEMS systems can be found. The top-down approach uses the traditional microfabrication methods, i.e. optical and electron beam lithography, to manufacture devices. While being limited by the resolution of these methods, it allows a large degree of control over the resulting structures. Typically, devices are fabricated from metallic thin films or etched semiconductor layers.

Bottom-up approaches, in contrast, use the chemical properties of single molecules to cause single-molecule components to (a) self-organize or self-assemble into some useful conformation, or (b) rely on positional assembly. These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or molecular recognition. This allows fabrication of much smaller structures, albeit often at the cost of limited control of the fabrication process.

A combination of these approaches may also be used, in which nanoscale molecules are integrated into a top-down framework. One such example is the carbon Nanotube nanomotor.

Materials

Carbon allotropes

Many of the commonly used materials for NEMS technology have been carbon based, specifically carbon nanotubes and graphene. This is mainly because of the useful properties of carbon based materials which directly meet the needs of NEMS. The mechanical properties of carbon (such as large Young's modulus) are fundamental to the stability of NEMS while the metallic and semiconductor conductivities of carbon based materials allow them to function as transistors.

Both graphene and carbon exhibit high Young's modulus, excessively low density, low friction and large surface area.^[5][6] The low friction of CNTs, allow practically frictionless bearings and has thus been a huge motivation towards practical applications of CNTs as constitutive elements in NEMS, such as nanomotors, switches, and high-frequency oscillators ^[6] Carbon nanotubes and graphene’s physical strength allows carbon based materials to meet higher stress demands, when common materials would normally fail and thus further support their use as a major materials in NEMS technological development.^[7]

Along with the mechanical benefits of carbon based materials, the electrical properties of carbon nanotubes and graphene allow it to be used in many electrical components of NEMS. Nanotransistors have been developed for both carbon nanotubes ^[8] as well as graphene.^[9] Transistors are one of the basic building blocks for all electronic devices, so by effectively developing usable transistors, carbon nanotubes and graphene are both very crucial to NEMS.

Metallic Carbon Nanotubes

Metallic carbon nanotubes have also been proposed for nanoelectronic interconnects since they can carry high current densities.^[7] This is a very useful property as wires to transfer current are another basic building block of any electrical system. Carbon nanotubes have specifically found so much use in NEMS that methods have already been discovered to connect suspended carbon nanotubes to other nanostructures.^[10] This allows carbon nanotubes to be structurally set up to make complicated nanoelectric systems. Because carbon based products can be properly controlled and act as interconnects as well as transistors, they serve as a fundamental material in the electrical components of NEMS.

Difficulties

Despite all of the useful properties of carbon nanotubes and graphene for NEMS technology, both of these products face several hindrances to their implementation. One of the main problems is carbon’s response to real life environments. Carbon nanotubes exhibit a large change in electronic properties when exposed to oxygen.^[11] Similarly, other changes to the electronic and mechanical attributes of carbon based materials must fully be explored before their implementation, especially because of their high surface area which can easily react with surrounding environments. Carbon Nanotubes were also found to have varying conductivities, being either metallic or semiconducting depending on their helicity when processed.^[12] Because of this, very special treatment must be given to the nanotubes during processing, in order to assure that all of the nanotubes have appropriate conductivities. Graphene also has very complicated electric conductivity properties compared to traditional semiconductors as it lacks an energy band gap and essentially changes all the rules for how electrons move through a graphene based device.^[9] This means that traditional constructions of electronic devices will likely not work and completely new architectures must be designed for these new electronic devices.

Simulations

Computer simulations have long been important counterparts to experimental studies of NEMS devices. Through continuum mechanics and molecular dynamics (MD), important behaviors of NEMS devices can be predicted via computational modeling before engaging in experiments.^[13][14][15] Additionally, combining continuum and MD techniques enables engineers to efficiently analyze the stability of NEMS devices without resorting to ultra-fine meshes and time-intensive simulations.^[16] Simulations have other advantages as well: they do not require the time and expertise associated with fabricating NEMS devices; they can effectively predict the interrelated roles of various electromechanical effects; and parametric studies can be conducted fairly readily as compared with experimental approaches. For example, computational studies have predicted the charge distributions and “pull-in” electromechanical responses of NEMS devices.^[17][18][19] Using simulations to predict mechanical and electrical behavior of these devices can help optimize NEMS device design parameters.

Future of NEMS

Before NEMS devices can actually be implemented, reasonable integrations of carbon based products must be created. The focus is currently shifting from experimental work towards practical applications and device structures that will implement and profit from the use of carbon nanotubes.^[6] At this point in NEMS research, there is a general understanding of the properties of carbon nanotubes and graphene. The next challenge to overcome involves understanding all of the properties of these carbon based tools, and using the properties to make efficient and durable NEMS with low failure rates.^[20]

NEMS devices, if implemented into everyday technologies, could further reduce the size of modern devices and allow for better performing sensors. Carbon based materials have served as prime materials for NEMS use, because of their highlighted mechanical and electrical properties. Once NEMS interactions with outside environments are integrated with effective designs, they will likely become useful products to everyday technologies.

A graphene varactor has been fabricated which operates passively for radiation dosimetry applications^[21] .

References

1. ^ ^{a b} James E. Hughes Jr; Massimiliano Di Ventra; Stephane Evoy (2004). Introduction to Nanoscale Science and Technology (Nanostructure Science and Technology). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 1-4020-7720-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=mccEGiaPEJwC. 
2. ^ Despont, M (2000). "VLSI-NEMS chip for parallel AFM data storage". Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 80 (2): 100–107. doi:10.1016/S0924-4247(99)00254-X. 
3. ^ ITRS Home
4. ^ Introduction to Nanoscale Science and Technology, written by S. Evoy, M. Duemling, and T. Jaruhar (Springer, US, 2004)
5. ^ Bunch, J. S.; Van Der Zande, A. M.; Verbridge, S. S.; Frank, I. W.; Tanenbaum, D. M.; Parpia, J. M.; Craighead, H. G.; McEuen, P. L. (2007). "Electromechanical Resonators from Graphene Sheets". Science 315 (5811): 490–493. Bibcode 2007Sci...315..490B. doi:10.1126/science.1136836. PMID 17255506. 
6. ^ ^{a b c} Kis, A.; Zettl, A. (2008). "Nanomechanics of carbon nanotubes". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 366 (1870): 1591–1611. Bibcode 2008RSPTA.366.1591K. doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2174. http://www.physics.berkeley.edu/research/zettl/pdf/343.Phil.Trans.R.SocA366-Kis.pdf. 
7. ^ ^{a b} Hermann, S; Ecke, R; Schulz, S; Gessner, T (2008). "Controlling the formation of nanoparticles for definite growth of carbon nanotubes for interconnect applications". Microelectronic Engineering 85 (10): 1979–1983. doi:10.1016/j.mee.2008.06.019. 
8. ^ Dekker, Cees; Tans, Sander J.; Verschueren, Alwin R. M. (1998). Nature 393 (6680): 49–52. Bibcode 1998Natur.393...49T. doi:10.1038/29954. 
9. ^ ^{a b} Westervelt, R. M. (2008). "APPLIED PHYSICS: Graphene Nanoelectronics". Science 320 (5874): 324–325. doi:10.1126/science.1156936. PMID 18420920. 
10. ^ Bauerdick, S.; Linden, A.; Stampfer, C.; Helbling, T.; Hierold, C. (2006). "Direct wiring of carbon nanotubes for integration in nanoelectromechanical systems". Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures 24 (6): 3144. Bibcode 2006JVSTB..24.3144B. doi:10.1116/1.2388965. http://www.micro.mavt.ethz.ch/publications/Bauerdick2006. 
11. ^ Collins, PG; Bradley, K; Ishigami, M; Zettl, A (2000). "Extreme oxygen sensitivity of electronic properties of carbon nanotubes". Science 287 (5459): 1801–4. Bibcode 2000Sci...287.1801C. doi:10.1126/science.287.5459.1801. PMID 10710305. 
12. ^ Ebbesen, T. W.; Lezec, H. J.; Hiura, H.; Bennett, J. W.; Ghaemi, H. F.; Thio, T. (1996). "Electrical conductivity of individual carbon nanotubes". Nature 382 (6586): 54–56. Bibcode 1996Natur.382...54E. doi:10.1038/382054a0. 
13. ^ M. Dequesnes , Z. Tang , and N. Aluru. “Static and Dynamic Analysis of Carbon Nanotube-Based Switches.” J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 2004, 126, 230–237.
14. ^ C.-H. Ke and H.D. Espinosa. "Numerical Analysis of Nanotube Based NEMS Devices. Part I: Electrostatic Charge Distribution on Multiwalled Nanotubes," Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 72, No. 5, pp. 721–725, 2005.
15. ^ C.-H. Ke, H.D. Espinosa, and N. Pugno. "Numerical Analysis of Nanotube Based NEMS Devices. Part II: Role of Finite Kinematics, Stretching and Charge Concentrations." Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 72, No. 5, p. 726-731, 2005.
16. ^ M. Dequesnes , Z. Tang , and N. Aluru. “Static and Dynamic Analysis of Carbon Nanotube-Based Switches.” J. Eng. Mater. Technol. 2004, 126, 230–237.
17. ^ P. Keblinski, S. K. Nayak, P. Zapol, and P. M. Ajayan. “Charge Distribution and Stability of Charged Nanotubes”. Physical Review Letters, Vol. 89, No. 25, pp. 255503-1 – 255503-4, 2002.
18. ^ C.-H. Ke and H.D. Espinosa. "In situ Electron Microscopy Electromechanical Characterization of a Bistable NEMS Device," Small, Vol. 2, No. 12, pp. 1484–1489, 2006.
19. ^ O. Loh, X. Wei, C. Ke, J. Sullivan, and H.D. Espinosa "Robust Carbon-Nanotube-Based Nano-electromechanical Devices: Understanding and Eliminating Prevalent Failure Modes Using Alternative Electrode Materials" Small, Volume 7, No 1, pp 79–86, 2011.
20. ^ O. Loh, X. Wei, C. Ke, J. Sullivan, and H.D. Espinosa "Robust Carbon-Nanotube-Based Nano-electromechanical Devices: Understanding and Eliminating Prevalent Failure Modes Using Alternative Electrode Materials" Small, Volume 7, No 1, pp 79–86, 2011.
21. ^ "Varactor". http://www.license.umn.edu/Products/Graphene-Varactor-uses-Quantum-Capacitance-has-Smaller-Size-and-Higher-Sensitivity__20110133.aspx. 

External links

• NCN NEMS: Tutorials
• Computational Methods for NEMS
• Online course MSE 376-Nanomaterials Mark C. Hersam (2006)