Yao language

For the family of Southeast Asian languages, see Hmong–Mien languages.

Yao
Spoken in	Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania
Native speakers	1,916,000 [1]
Language family	Niger–Congo Atlantic–Congo Benue–Congo Bantoid Bantu Rufiji–Ruvuma Ruvuma Yao–Mwera Yao
Writing system	Latin alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-2	yao
ISO 639-3	yao
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Yao is a Bantu language in Africa with approximately 1 million speakers in Malawi, half a million in Tanzania, and around 450,000 in Mozambique. There are also some speakers in Zambia. In Malawi, the main dialect is Mangoche, mostly spoken around Lake Malawi. In Mozambique, the main dialects are Makale and Massaninga. The language has also gone by several other names in English, including ChiYao or CiYao (the prefixed form), Achawa, Adsawa, Adsoa, Ajawa, Ayawa, Ayo, Ayao, Djao, Haiao, Hiao, Hyao, Jao, Veiao, and WaJao.^[1]

Though the main literary languages in the region where Yao is spoken have historically been Arabic, English, German and Portuguese, the language has gained some official recognition and several dictionaries and grammars have been written.

Phonetics and orthography

As in English, unvoiced plosives are breathed and voiced plosives are not. There are conventionally only five 'pure' vowels, viz. a, e, i, o, u, though there is some variation in vowel length. Yao is minimally tonal language, as is common in Bantu languages.

In each of the main three countries where Yao is spoken, the orthography differs widely, and there is a low literacy rate. In Tanzania, the orthography is based on that of Swahili, whereas in Malawi it is based on that of Chewa. The Malawian form uses the following characters:

Letter:

A

B

Ch

D

E

G

I

J/Dy

K

L

Ly

M

N

Ng'

Ny

O

P

S

T

U

W

Ŵ

Y

Value:

a

b

tʃ

d

e~ɛ

ɡ

i

dʒ

k

l

ʎ

m

n

ŋ

ɲ

ɔ~o

p

ʂ

tʰ

u

w

ʋ

j

Macrons can be used to prevent ambiguity that would otherwise arise due to the lack of representation of vowel length.^[1][2][3]

Grammar

Yao is an SVO language. Like all Bantu languages, Yao is agglutinative, with a highly regular paradigm of verbal inflection, and its nouns placed in a variety of classes indicated by prefixes, these partially corresponding to actual categories of objects or people. To each class is associated a characteristic, used in the formation of pronouns and concord links, prefixes used before verbs governed by, and adjectives describing, a noun of the given class.

Noun classes

Class	Prefix	Class characteristic	Used for
1	m-, mu-, mw-	ju	persons singular
2	ŵa-, a-, acha-, achi-	ŵa	persons plural
3	m-, mu-, mw-	u	living things singular
4	mi-	ji	living things plural
5	li-, ly-	li	miscellaneous singular
6	ma-	ga	plurals of class 5
7	chi-, ch'-	chi	miscellaneous singular
8	i-, y-	i	plurals of class 7
9	n-, ny-, mb-, (nw-)	ji	miscellaneous singular
10	n-, ny-, mb-, (nw-)	si	plurals of class 9
11	lu-	lu	like 9, also singulars of class 10
12	tu-	tu	plurals of class 13
13	ka-	ka	diminutives singular
14	u-	u	collective and abstract, no plural; also some singulars of class 6
15a	ku, kw-	ku	infinitives
15b	(ku-, kwa-)	ku	locality (to)
16	(pa-)	pa	locality (at)
17	(mu-, mwa-)	mu	locality (in)

The corresponding concord links are identical to the nominal prefixes except in the cases of classes 1 and 2, which have concord links 'mb-' and 'a-' respectively. The convention of inclusing classes 15b, 16 and 17 deviates from the traditional Bantu system, their prefixes being more properly prepositional or case determiners.

Verbal forms

The personal forms are given below, with informal forms given in brackets.

Personal form prefix	English equivalent (pronoun)
n-, ni-	I
(u-)	(thou)
a-	he, she, it, you
tu-	we
m-, mu-, mw-	you
ŵa-, a-	they (he, you)

There are affirmative and negative forms of the verb, each with approximately the following divisions:

Indicative mood

As in many Bantu languages, this is characterised by an ending 'a'. Present, immediate future, present perfect, past and past perfect tenses are distinguished, the last being irregular in formation.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is similar in form to the indicative, but as in many Bantu languages, the final 'a' is changed to 'e'. It can be used as a polite imperative, and is usually associated with subordinate clauses.

Imperative

To form the 'ordinary' (often less polite) imperative, the simple stem may be used, or 'n' may be prefixed to the indicative, or the continuative suffixes '-ga' or '-je' may be added.

Pronouns

The personal pronouns relate only to classes 1 and 2. Other pronouns are formed from the class links. These pronouns, as a common Bantu feature, are absolute, in that they stand alone from the rest of the sentence: for nominative accusative and prepositional forms, affixes must be used. The third person pronouns depend on noun class, as explained above.

Absolute pronoun	English equivalent (subject pronoun, object pronoun)
une	I, me
(ugwe)	thou, thee
uwe	we, us
umwe	you

These forms may be combined according to certain normal Bantu laws of vowel elision with prefixes such as 'na' (with, and).

There are also several demonstratives, most of which form triples ('this one', 'that one nearby', and 'that one far away')- that is, triple deixis is used.

See also

• Yao people
• Bantu languages

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=yao.
2. ^ Sanderson, Meredith (1922). A Yao Grammar. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London.
3. ^ Ngunga, Armindo (2002). "Elementos de gramática da língua Yao". Imprensa Universitária, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo.