Four Great Inventions of ancient China

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papermaking, outlined by Cai Lun in 105 AD]

The Four Great Inventions of ancient China (zh-tsp|t=四大發明|s=四大发明|p=sì dà fā míng, meaning "four great inventions") are four inventions that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance and as signs of ancient China's advanced science and technology. [cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-gudai/8.htm|title=The Four Great Inventions|publisher=China.org.cn|accessdate=2007-11-11]

The Four Great Inventions are:
* The Compass [cite web|url=http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_26519.htm|title=Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Compass|publisher=ChinaCulture.org|accessdate=2007-11-11]
* Gunpowder [cite web|url=http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_26504.htm|title=Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Gunpowder|publisher=ChinaCulture.org|accessdate=2007-11-11]
* Paper [cite web|url=http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_26514.htm|title=Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Paper|publisher=ChinaCulture.org|accessdate=2007-11-11]
* Printing [cite web|url=http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_26509.htm|title=Four Great Inventions of Ancient China -- Printing|publisher=ChinaCulture.org|accessdate=2007-11-11]

These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. [Although he was unaware of their origins, Francis Bacon wrote of the importance of these technologies to the medieval world: "Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries." ] However, some scholars have pointed out that other inventions in China were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact. The Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological interaction between East and West. [ [http://www.bjreview.com.cn/special/txt/2008-08/26/content_146777.htm] ]

Origins

Although Chinese culture is replete with lists of significant achievements (e.g. Four Great Beauties, Four Great Books of Song, Four Great Classical Novels, Five Classics, Five Elders), the concept of the Four Great Inventions originated with Western scholars, and was only later adopted by the Chinese.

The importance of these inventions was perhaps first discussed by the British philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who in 1620 wrote: "Printing, gunpowder and the compass ... whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries." [] Bacon was a famous politician and philosopher, not a scientist or archaeologist, hence, he was likely unaware of the origins of these inventions, and was not writing of the ancient Chinese inventions but rather their Western analogs. However, his writings do show the importance of these technologies to the medieval world.

The modern list of the Four Great Inventions originated in the 19th century with the missionary and Sinologist Joseph Edkins (1823-1905). Edkins, when comparing Japan with China, noted that scholars should bear in mind that the Japanese did not have inventions as significant as papermaking, printing, the compass and gunpowder. This list was later popularized and augmented by the noted British biochemist, historian, and Sinologist Joseph Needham, who devoted the later part of his life to studying the science and civilization of ancient China.

The Four Great Inventions

The Compass

The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature is found in a 4th century BC book called "Book of the Devil Valley Master" (鬼谷子): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."cite journal | last = Shu-hua | first = Li | title = Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole | journal = Isis | volume = 45 | pages = pp. 175–196 | publisher = Oxford Student Publications Ltd. | location = Oxford, U.K. | date = July 1954 | url = http://www.isismagazine.org.uk/ | doi = 10.1086/348315]

The earliest reference to a magnetic device used as a "direction finder" is in a Song Dynasty book dated to 1040-44 AD. Here there is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night." However, the first suspended magnetic needle compass was written of by Shen Kuo in his book of 1088 AD.

For most of Chinese history, the compass that remained in use was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water. [Kreutz, p. 373] According to Needham, the Chinese in the Song Dynasty and continuing Yuan Dynasty did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass.Needham p. 255]

The dry compass used in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the loadstone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction. Although the 14th century European compass-card in box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by Japanese pirates in the 16th century (who had in turn learned of it from Europeans), the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century.Needham, p. 290]

Gunpowder

By the time the Song Dynasty treatise, "Wujing Zongyao" (武经总要), was written by Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide in 1044 AD, the various Chinese formulas for gunpowder held levels of nitrate in the range of 27% to 50%.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 345.] By the end of the 12th century, Chinese formulas of gunpowder had a level of nitrate capable of bursting through cast iron metal containers, in the form of the earliest hollow, gunpowder-filled grenade bombs.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 347.]

In 1280 AD the bomb store of the large gunpowder arsenal at Weiyang accidentally caught fire, which produced such a massive explosion that a team of Chinese inspectors at the site a week later deduced that some 100 guards had been killed instantly, with wooden beams and pillars blown sky high and landing at a distance of over 10 li (~2 mi. or ~3.2 km) away from the explosion.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 209-210.]

By the time of Jiao Yu and his "Huolongjing" in the mid 14th century, the explosive potential of gunpowder was perfected, as the level of nitrate in gunpowder formulas had risen to a range of 12% to 91%, with at least 6 different formulas in use that are considered to have maximum explosive potential for gunpowder. By that time, the Chinese had discovered how to create explosive cannonballs by packing their hollow shells with this nitrate-enhanced gunpowder.Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 264.]

Paper

Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about 105 AD, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste. [cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108527/papermaking|title=papermaking|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=2007-11-11] However a recent archaeological discovery has been reported from near Dunhuang of paper with writing on it dating to 8 BC. [cite web|url=http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/newsletters_11.php|title=World Archaeological Congress eNewsletter 11 August 2006|date=2006-08-11|accessdate=2007-11-11]

While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC,Needham, Volume 5, 122.] paper used as a writing medium became widespread by the 3rd century,Needham, Volume 5, 1.] and by the 6th century sheets of paper in China were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well.Needham, Volume 5, 123.] During the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea, while the later Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD) was the first government on earth to issue paper-printed money (see banknote).

Printing

The Chinese invention of Woodblock printing, at some point before the first dated book in 868 (the Diamond Sutra), produced the world's first print culture. According to A. Hyatt Mayor, curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "it was the Chinese who really discovered the means of communication that was to dominate until our age." [ A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Princeton, 1971, nos 1-4. ISBN 0691003262] Woodblock printing was better suited to Chinese characters than movable type, which the Chinese also invented, but which did not replace woodblock printing. Western printing presses, although introduced in the 16th century, was not widely used in China until the 19th century. China, along with Korea, was one of the last countries to adopt them.Melvin McGovern, "Early Western Presses in Korea", "Korea Journal", 1967, pp.21-23]

Woodblock printing for textiles, on the other hand, preceded text printing by centuries in all cultures, and is first found in China at around 220,Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas",p112, 1990, British Museum publications, ISBN 0-7141-1447-2] then Egypt in the 4th century, [cite web|url=http://touregypt.net/featurestories/fabrics.htm|title=Ancient Coptic Christian Fabrics|publisher=Tour Egypt|accessdate=2007-11-11] and reached Europe by the 14th century or before, via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards. [ A Hyatt Mayor, Prints and People, Metropolitan Museum of Art/Princeton, 1971, nos 5-18. ISBN 0691003262] "An Introduction to a History of Woodcut", Arthur M. Hind, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935, pp64-127 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0] In another analysis Hyatt Mayor states that "a little before 1400 Europeans had enough paper to begin making holy images and playing cards in woodcut. They need not have learned woodcut from the Chinese, because they had been using woodblocks for about 1,000 years to stamp designs on linen." [A. Hyatt Mayor, "A Historical Survey of Printmaking", "Art Education", Vol. 17, No. 4. (Apr., 1964), pp. 4-9 (4)]

Printing in China was further advanced by the 11th century, as it was written by the Song Dynasty scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095) that the common artisan Bi Sheng (990-1051) invented ceramic movable type printing.Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 201.] Then there were those such as Wang Zhen (fl. 1290-1333) and Hua Sui (1439-1513), the former of whom invented wooden movable type printing in China,Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 206.] the latter of whom invented metal movable type printing in China.Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 212.] Movable type printing was a tedious process if one were to assemble thousands of individual characters for the printing of simply one or a few books, but if used for printing thousands of books, the process was efficient and rapid enough to be successful and highly employed. Indeed, there were many cities in China where movable type printing, in wooden and metal form, was adopted by the enterprises of wealthy local families or large private industries. The Qing Dynasty court sponsored enormous printing projects using woodblock movable type printing during the 18th century. Although superseded by western printing techniques, woodblock movable type printing remains in use in isolated communities in China. [ [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6488972.html] ]

Cultural significance

Regardless of the origins of the idea in the West, the Chinese and the Chinese government have embraced the concept of the Four Great Inventions. Chinese government websites proudly showcase the four inventions, and Chinese cultural exchange programs frequently mention the four inventions. In 2005, the Hong Kong postal service created a special stamp issue that showcased four inventions [ [http://www.hongkongpost.com/eng/publications/news/2005/20050727a/index.htm] ] [ [http://www.hongkongpost.com/eng/publications/news/2005/20050818a/index.htm] ]

2008 Beijing Olympics

The Four Great Inventions was featured as one of the main themes of the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/olympics/2008-08/12/content_6928189.htm] Paper making was represented with a dance and an ink drawing on a huge piece of paper, printing by a set of dancing printing blocks, a replica of an ancient compass was showcased, and gunpowder by the extensive firework displays during the ceremony. A survey by the Beijing Social Facts & Public Opinion Survey Center found that Beijing residents found the program on the Four Great Inventions the most moving part of the opening ceremony. [ [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/6476950.html] ]

cholarly critiques

Recently, scholars have questioned the importance placed on the inventions of paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. Chinese scholars in particular question if too much emphasis is given to these inventions, over other significant Chinese inventions. They have pointed out that other inventions in China were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact within China. [ [http://www.bjreview.com.cn/special/txt/2008-08/26/content_146777.htm] ]

In the chapter "Are the Four Major Inventions the Most Important?" of his book "Ancient Chinese Inventions", Chinese historian Deng Yinke writes: [Deng (2005), 14.] quote
The four inventions do not necessarily summarize the achievements of science and technology in ancient China. The four inventions were regarded as the most important Chinese achievements in science and technology, simply because they had a prominent position in the exchanges between the East and the West and acted as a powerful dynamic in the development of capitalism in Europe. As a matter of fact, ancient Chinese scored much more than the four major inventions: in farming, iron and copper metallurgy, exploitation of coal and petroleum, machinery, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, porcelain, silk, and wine making. The numerous inventions and discoveries greatly advanced China's productive forces and social life. Many are at least as important as the four inventions, and some are even greater than the four.

ee also

*Dream Pool Essays
*Gunpowder warfare
*History of science and technology in China
*List of Chinese inventions
*Technology of the Song Dynasty

Notes

References

*Deng, Yinke. (2005). "Ancient Chinese Inventions". Translated by Wang Pingxing. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 7-5085-0837-8.
* Li Shu-hua (1954) "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole", "Isis", 45 (2: July), p. 175–196
*Needham, Joseph (1986). "Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics". Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
*Needham, Joseph (1986). "Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic". Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
*Needham, Joseph (1986). "Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing". Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.