Io (moon)

] Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System (which have a thick coating of ice), Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core. Most of Io's surface is characterized by extensive plains coated with sulfur and sulfur dioxide frost.

Io's volcanism is responsible for many of that satellite's unique features. Its volcanic plumes and lava flows produce large surface changes and paint the surface in various shades of red, yellow, white, black, and green, largely due to the sulfurous compounds. Numerous extensive lava flows, several longer than convert|500|km|mi|0 in length, also mark the surface. These volcanic processes have given rise to a comparison of the visual appearance of Io's surface to a pizza. The materials produced by this volcanism provide material for Io's thin, patchy atmosphere and Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere.

Io played a significant role in the development of astronomy in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei, along with the other Galilean satellites. This discovery furthered the adoption of the Copernican model of the Solar System, the development of Kepler's laws of motion, and the first measurement of the speed of light. From Earth, Io remained nothing more than a point of light until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when it became possible to resolve its large-scale surface features, such as the dark red polar and bright equatorial regions. In 1979, the two "Voyager" spacecraft revealed Io to be a geologically active world, with numerous volcanic features, large mountains, and a young surface with no obvious impact craters. The "Galileo" spacecraft performed several close flybys in the 1990s and early 2000s, obtaining data about Io's interior structure and surface composition. These spacecraft also revealed the relationship between the satellite and Jupiter's magnetosphere and the existence of a belt of radiation centered on Io's orbit. The exploration of Io continued in the early months of 2007 with a distant flyby by Pluto-bound "New Horizons".

Name

While Simon Marius is not credited with the sole discovery of the Galilean satellites, his names for the moons have stuck. In his 1614 publication "Mundus Jovialis", he named the innermost large moon of Jupiter after the Greek mythological figure Io, one of the many lovers of Zeus (who is also known as Jupiter in Roman mythology).cite journal |last=Marius |first=S. |authorlink=Simon Marius |year=1614 |title=Mundus Iovialis anno M.DC.IX Detectus Ope Perspicilli Belgici |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/marius.html (in which he [http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/jupiter_satellites.html attributes the suggestion] to Johannes Kepler)] Marius' names fell out of favor, and were not revived in common use until the mid-20th century. In much of the earlier astronomical literature, Io is simply referred to by its Roman numeral designation (a system introduced by Galileo) as "nowrap|Jupiter I", or simply as "the first satellite of Jupiter". The most common adjectival form of the name is "Ionian".

Features on Io are named after characters and places from the Io myth, as well as deities of fire, volcanoes, the Sun, and thunder from various myths, and characters and places from Dante's "Inferno", names appropriate to the volcanic nature of the surface.cite web | last=Blue | first=Jennifer | date=October 16, 2006 |url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/append6.html | title=Categories for Naming Features on Planets and Satellites | publisher=USGS | accessdate= 2007-06-14 ] Since the surface was first seen up close by "Voyager 1" the International Astronomical Union has approved 225 names for Io's volcanoes, mountains, plateaus, and large albedo features. The approved feature names used for Io include "patera" (volcanic depression), "mons", "mensa", "planum", and "tholus" (various types of mountain, with morphologic characteristics such as size, shape, and height determining the term used), "fluctus" (lava flow), "vallis" (lava channel), "regio" (large-scale albedo feature), and "active eruptive center" (location where plume activity was the first sign of volcanic activity at a particular volcano). Examples of named features include Prometheus, Pan Mensa, Tvashtar Paterae, and Tsũi Goab Fluctus.cite web | last=Blue | first=Jennifer | date=June 14, 2007 |url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/jsp/FeatureTypes2.jsp?system=Jupiter&body=Io&systemID=5&bodyID=7&sort=AName&show=Fname&show=Lat&show=Long&show=Diam&show=Stat&show=Orig | title=Io Nomenclature Table of Contents | publisher=USGS | accessdate= 2007-06-14 ]

Observational history

The first reported observation of Io was made by Galileo Galilei on 7 January 1610. The discovery of Io and the other Galilean satellites of Jupiter was published in Galileo's "Sidereus Nuncius" in March 1610.cite book |last=Cruikshank |first=D. P. |coauthors= and Nelson, R. M. |editor=Lopes, R. M. C.; and Spencer, J. R. |title=Io after Galileo |year=2007 |publisher=Springer-Praxis |isbn=3-540-34681-3 |pages=pp. 5–33 |chapter=A history of the exploration of Io ] In his "Mundus Jovialis", published in 1614, Simon Marius claimed to have discovered Io and the other moons of Jupiter in 1609, one week before Galileo's discovery. Galileo doubted this claim and dismissed the work of Marius as plagiarism. Given that Galileo published his work before Marius, Galileo is credited with the discovery.

For the next two and a half centuries, Io remained an unresolved, 5th-magnitude point of light in astronomers' telescopes. During the 17th century, Io and the other Galilean satellites served a variety of purposes, such as helping mariners determine their longitude, [cite web
author=O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. | month=February | year=1997
url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Longitude1.html
title=Longitude and the Académie Royale
publisher=University of St. Andrews
accessdate= 2007-06-14 ] validating Kepler's Third Law of planetary motion, and determining the time for light to travel between Jupiter and Earth. Based on ephemerides produced by astronomer Giovanni Cassini and others, Pierre-Simon Laplace created a mathematical theory to explain the resonant orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede. This resonance was later found to have a profound effect on the geologies of the three moons.

Improved telescope technology in the late 19th and 20th centuries allowed astronomers to resolve (that is, see) large-scale surface features on Io. In the 1890s, Edward E. Barnard was the first to observe variations in Io's brightness between its equatorial and polar regions, correctly determining that this was due to differences in color and albedo between the two regions and not due to Io being egg-shaped, as proposed at the time by fellow astronomer William Pickering, or two separate objects, as initially proposed by Barnard.] cite journal |last=Dobbins |first=T. |authorlink= |coauthors=and Sheehan, W. |year=2004 |title=The Story of Jupiter's Egg Moons |journal=Sky & Telescope |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=114–120 ] cite journal |last=Barnard |first=E. E. |authorlink=Edward Emerson Barnard |year=1891 |title=Observations of the Planet Jupiter and his Satellites during 1890 with the 12-inch Equatorial of the Lick Observatory |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=51 |issue=9 |pages=543–556 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1891MNRAS..51..543B ] Later telescopic observations confirmed Io's distinct reddish-brown polar regions and yellow-white equatorial band.]

Telescopic observations in the mid-20th century began to hint at Io's unusual nature. Spectroscopic observations suggested that Io's surface was devoid of water ice (a substance found to be plentiful on the other Galilean satellites).cite journal |last=Lee |first=T. |year=1972 |title=Spectral Albedos of the Galilean Satellites |journal=Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=179–180 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972CoLPL...9..179L ] The same observations suggested a surface dominated by evaporates composed of sodium salts and sulfur.cite journal |title=Io: A Surface Evaporite Deposit? |journal=Science |last=Fanale |first=F. P. |coauthors="et al." |pages=922–925 |volume=186 |issue=4167 |year=1974 |doi=10.1126/science.186.4167.922 |pmid=17730914] Radio telescopic observations revealed Io's influence on the Jovian magnetosphere, as demonstrated by decametric wavelength bursts tied to the orbital period of Io.]

"Pioneer"

The first spacecraft to pass by Io were the twin "Pioneer 10" and "11" probes on December 3, 1973 and December 2, 1974 respectively.cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch5.htm |title=First into the Outer Solar System |accessdate=2007-06-05 |last=Fimmel |first=R. O. |coauthors="et al." |year=1977 |year= |month= |format= |work=Pioneer Odyssey |publisher=NASA |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= ] Radio tracking provided an improved estimate of Io's mass, which, along with the best available information of Io's size, suggested that Io had the highest density of the four Galilean satellites, and was composed primarily of silicate rock rather than water ice.cite journal | last=Anderson |first=J. D. |coauthors="et al." |title=Gravitational parameters of the Jupiter system from the Doppler tracking of Pioneer 10 |journal=Science |volume=183 |issue= |pages=322–323 |year=1974 |url= |doi = ] The "Pioneers" also revealed the presence of a thin atmosphere at Io and intense radiation belts near the orbit of Io. The camera on board "Pioneer 11" took the only good image of Io obtained by either spacecraft, showing its north polar region.cite web |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/io/pioio.html |title="Pioneer 11" Images of Io |work=Galileo Home Page |accessdate=2007-04-21 ] Close-up images were planned during "Pioneer 10"'s encounter with Io, but those observations were lost due to the high-radiation environment.

"Voyager"

"Voyager 2" passed Io on July 9, 1979 at a distance of 1 130 000 km (702 150 mi). Though it did not approach nearly as close as "Voyager 1", comparisons between images taken by the two spacecraft showed several surface changes that had occurred in the five months between the encounters. In addition, observations of Io as a crescent as "Voyager 2" departed the Jovian system revealed that eight of the nine plumes observed in March were still active in July 1979, with only the volcano Pele shutting down between flybys.cite book |last=Strom |first=R. G. | coauthors=Schneider, N. M. |editor=Morrison, D. |title=Satellites of Jupiter |year=1982 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=0-8165-0762-7 |pages=pp. 598–633 |chapter=Volcanic eruptions on Io ]

"Galileo"

The "Galileo" spacecraft arrived at Jupiter in 1995 after a six-year journey from Earth to follow up on the discoveries of the two "Voyager" probes and ground-based observations taken in the intervening years. Io's location within one of Jupiter's most intense radiation belts precluded a prolonged close flyby, but "Galileo" did pass close by shortly before entering orbit for its two-year, primary mission studying the Jovian system. While no images were taken during the close flyby on December 7, 1995, the encounter did yield significant results, such as the discovery of a large iron core, similar to that found in the rocky planets of the inner solar system.cite journal | last=Anderson |first=J. D. |coauthors="et al." |title=Galileo Gravity Results and the Internal Structure of Io |journal=Science |volume=272 |issue= |pages=709–712 |year=1996 |url= |doi=10.1126/science.272.5262.709 ]

Despite the lack of close-up imaging and mechanical problems that greatly restricted the amount of data returned, several significant discoveries were made during "Galileo"'s primary mission. "Galileo" observed the effects of a major eruption at Pillan Patera and confirmed that volcanic eruptions are composed of silicate magmas with magnesium-rich mafic and ultramafic compositions with sulfur and sulfur dioxide serving a similar role to water and carbon dioxide on Earth.cite journal |title=High-temperature silicate volcanism on Jupiter's moon Io |journal=Science |last=McEwen |first=A. S. |coauthors="et al." |pages=87–90 |volume=281 |issue= |year=1998 |doi=10.1126/science.281.5373.87] Distant imaging of Io was acquired for almost every orbit during the primary mission, revealing large numbers of active volcanoes (both thermal emission from cooling magma on the surface and volcanic plumes), numerous mountains with widely varying morphologies, and several surface changes that had taken place both between the "Voyager" and "Galileo" eras and between "Galileo" orbits.cite book |last=Perry |first=J.; "et al." |editor=Lopes, R. M. C.; and Spencer, J. R. |title=Io after Galileo |year=2007 |publisher=Springer-Praxis |isbn=3-540-34681-3 |pages=pp. 35–59 |chapter=A Summary of the Galileo mission and its observations of Io ]

The "Galileo" mission was twice extended, in 1997 and 2000. During these extended missions, the probe flew by Io three times in late 1999 and early 2000 and three times in late 2001 and early 2002. Observations during these encounters revealed the geologic processes occurring at Io's volcanoes and mountains, excluded the presence of a magnetic field, and demonstrated the extent of volcanic activity. In December 2000, the "Cassini" spacecraft had a distant and brief encounter with the Jupiter system en route to Saturn, allowing for joint observations with "Galileo". These observations revealed a new plume at Tvashtar Paterae and provided insights into Io's aurorae.cite journal | last=Porco |first=C. C. |authorlink=Carolyn Porco |coauthors="et al." |title=Cassini imaging of Jupiter's atmosphere, satellites, and rings |journal=Science |volume=299 |issue= |pages=1541–1547 |year=2003 |url= |doi=10.1126/science.1079462 ]

ubsequent observations

Orbit

Io orbits Jupiter at a distance of 421 700 km (262 000 mi) from the planet's center and 350 000 km (217 000 mi) from its cloudtops. It is the innermost of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter, its orbit lying between those of Thebe and Europa. Including Jupiter's inner satellites, Io is the fifth moon out from Jupiter. It takes 42.5 hours to revolve once (fast enough for its motion to be observed over a single night of observation). Io is in a 2:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Europa and a 4:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Ganymede, completing two orbits of Jupiter for every one orbit completed by Europa, and four orbits for every one completed by Ganymede. This resonance helps maintain Io's orbital eccentricity (0.0041), which in turn provides the primary heating source for its geologic activity (see the "Tidal heating" section for a more detailed explanation of the process). Without this forced eccentricity, Io's orbit would circularize through tidal dissipation, leading to a geologically less active world. Like the other Galilean satellites of Jupiter and the Earth's Moon, Io rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face nearly pointed toward Jupiter.

Interaction with Jupiter's magnetosphere

Io plays a significant role in shaping the Jovian magnetic field. The magnetosphere of Jupiter sweeps up gases and dust from Io's thin atmosphere at a rate of 1 tonne per second.cite book |last=Schneider |first=N. M. |coauthors=Bagenal, F. |editor=Lopes, R. M. C.; and Spencer, J. R. |title=Io after Galileo |year=2007 |publisher=Springer-Praxis |isbn=3-540-34681-3 |pages=pp. 265–286 |chapter=Io's neutral clouds, plasma torus, and magnetospheric interactions ] This material is mostly composed of ionized and atomic sulfur, oxygen and chlorine; atomic sodium and potassium; molecular sulfur dioxide and sulfur; and sodium chloride dust.cite journal | last=Postberg |first=F. |coauthors="et al." |title=Composition of jovian dust stream particles |journal=Icarus |volume=183 |issue= |pages=122–134 |year=2006 |url= |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.02.001 ] These materials ultimately have their origin from Io's volcanic activity, but the material that escapes to Jupiter's magnetic field and into interplanetary space comes directly from Io's atmosphere. These materials, depending on their ionized state and composition, ultimately end up in various neutral (non-ionized) clouds and radiation belts in Jupiter's magnetosphere and, in some cases, are eventually ejected from the Jovian system.

Surrounding Io (up to a distance of 6 Io radii from the moon's surface) is a cloud of neutral sulfur, oxygen, sodium, and potassium atoms. These particles originate in Io's upper atmosphere but are excited from collisions with ions in the plasma torus (discussed below) and other processes into filling Io's Hill sphere, which is the region where the moon's gravity is predominant over Jupiter. Some of this material escapes Io's gravitational pull and goes into orbit around Jupiter. Over a 20-hour period, these particles spread out from Io to form a banana-shaped, neutral cloud that can reach as far as 6 Jovian radii from Io, either inside Io's orbit and ahead of the satellite or outside Io's orbit and behind the satellite. The collisional process that excites these particles also occasionally provides sodium ions in the plasma torus with an electron, removing those new "fast" neutrals from the torus. However, these particles still retain their velocity (70 km/s, compared to the 17 km/s orbital velocity at Io), leading these particles to be ejected in jets leading away from Io.cite journal | last=Burger |first=M. H. |coauthors="et al." |title=Galileo's close-up view of Io sodium jet |journal=Geophys. Res. Let. |volume=26 |issue=22 |pages=3333–3336 |year=1999 |url= |doi=10.1029/1999GL003654 ]

Io orbits within a belt of intense radiation known as the Io plasma torus. The plasma in this donut-shaped ring of ionized sulfur, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine originates when neutral atoms in the "cloud" surrounding Io are ionized and carried along by the Jovian magnetosphere. Unlike the particles in the neutral cloud, these particles co-rotate with Jupiter's magnetosphere, revolving around Jupiter at 74 km/s. Like the rest of Jupiter's magnetic field, the plasma torus is tilted with respect to Jupiter's equator (and Io's orbital plane), meaning Io is at times below and at other times above the core of the plasma torus. As noted above, these ions' higher velocity and energy levels are partly responsible for the removal of neutral atoms and molecules from Io's atmosphere and more extended neutral cloud. The torus is composed of three sections: an outer, "warm" torus that resides just outside Io's orbit; a vertically extended region known as the "ribbon", composed of the neutral source region and cooling plasma, located at around Io's distance from Jupiter; and an inner, "cold" torus, composed of particles that are slowly spiraling in toward Jupiter. After residing an average of 40 days in the torus, particles in the "warm" torus escape and are partially responsible for Jupiter's unusually large magnetosphere, their outward pressure inflating it from within.cite journal | last=Krimigis |first=S. M. |coauthors="et al." |title=A nebula of gases from Io surrounding Jupiter |journal=Nature |volume=415 |issue= |pages=994–996 |year=2002 |url= |doi=10.1038/415994a ] Particles from Io, detected as variations in magnetospheric plasma, have been detected far into the long magnetotail by "New Horizons". To study similar variations within the plasma torus, researchers measure the ultraviolet-wavelength light it emits. While such variations have not been definitively linked to variations in Io's volcanic activity (the ultimate source for material in the plasma torus), this link has been established in the neutral sodium cloud.cite journal | last=Medillo |first=M. |coauthors="et al." |title=Io's volcanic control of Jupiter's extended neutral clouds |journal=Icarus |volume=170 |issue= |pages=430–442 |year=2004 |url= |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.03.009 ]

Jupiter's magnetic field lines, which Io crosses, couples Io to Jupiter's polar upper atmosphere through the generation of an electric current known as the Io flux tube. This current produces an auroral glow in Jupiter's polar regions known as the Io footprint, as well as aurorae in Io's atmosphere. Particles from this auroral interaction act to darken the Jovian polar regions at visible wavelengths. The location of Io and its auroral footprint with respect to the Earth and Jupiter has a strong influence on Jovian radio emissions from our vantage point: when Io is visible, radio signals from Jupiter increase considerably. The "Juno" mission, planned for the next decade, should help to shed light on these processes.

tructure

Io is slightly larger than Earth's Moon. It has a mean radius of 1821.3 km (about five percent greater than the Moon's) and a mass of 8.9319e|22 kg (about 21 percent greater than the Moon's). Among the Galilean satellites, in both mass and volume, Io ranks behind Ganymede and Callisto but ahead of Europa.

Interior

Composed primarily of silicate rock and iron, Io is closer in bulk composition to the terrestrial planets than to other satellites in the outer solar system, which are mostly composed of a mix of water ice and silicates. Io has a density of 3.5275 g/cm³, the highest of any moon in the Solar System; significantly higher than the other Galilean satellites and higher than the Earth's moon.cite book |last=Schubert |first=J. "et al." |editor=F. Bagenal "et al." |title=Jupiter: The Planet, Satellites, and Magnetosphere |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=281–306 |isbn=978-0521818087 |chapter=Interior composition, structure, and dynamics of the Galilean satellites. ] Models based on the "Voyager" and "Galileo" measurements of the moon's mass, radius and quadrupole gravitational coefficients (numerical values related to how mass is distributed within an object) suggest that its interior is differentiated between an outer, silicate-rich crust and mantle and an inner, iron- or iron sulfide–rich core. The metallic core makes up approximately 20% of Io's mass.cite journal | last=Anderson |first=J. D. |coauthors="et al." |title=Io's gravity field and interior structure |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=106 |issue= |pages=32963–32969 |year=2001 |url= |doi=10.1029/2000JE001367 ] Depending on the amount of sulfur in the core, the core has a radius between 350 and 650 km (220 to 400 mi) if it is composed almost entirely of iron, or between 550 and 900 km (310 to 560 mi) for a core consisting of a mix of iron and sulfur. "Galileo"'s magnetometer failed to detect an internal magnetic field at Io, suggesting that the core is not convecting.cite journal | last=Kivelson |first=M. G. |coauthors="et al." |title=Magnetized or Unmagnetized: Ambiguity persists following Galileo's encounters with Io in 1999 and 2000 |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=106 |issue=A11 |pages=26121–26135 |year=2001 |url= |doi=10.1029/2000JA002510 ]

Tidal heating

Unlike the Earth and the Moon, Io's main source of internal heat comes from tidal dissipation rather than radioactive isotope decay, the result of Io's orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede. Such heating is dependent on Io's distance from Jupiter, its orbital eccentricity, the composition of its interior, and its physical state. Its Laplace resonance with Europa and Ganymede maintains Io's eccentricity and prevents tidal dissipation within Io from circularizing its orbit. The resonant orbit also helps to maintain Io's distance from Jupiter; otherwise tides raised on Jupiter would cause Io to slowly spiral outward from its parent planet.cite journal | last=Yoder |first=C. F. |coauthors="et al." |title=How tidal heating in Io drives the Galilean orbital resonance locks |journal=Nature |volume=279 |issue= |pages=767–770 |year=1979 |url= |doi=10.1038/279767a0 ] The vertical differences in Io's tidal bulge, between the times Io is at periapsis and apoapsis in its orbit, could be as much as 100 m (330 ft). The friction or tidal dissipation produced in Io's interior due to this varying tidal pull, which, without the resonant orbit, would have gone into circularizing Io's orbit instead, creates significant tidal heating within Io's interior, melting a significant amount of the moon's mantle and core. The amount of energy produced is up to 200 times greater than that produced solely from radioactive decay. This heat is released in the form of volcanic activity, generating its observed high heat flow (global total: 0.6 to 1.6×10¹⁴ W). Models of its orbit suggest that the amount of tidal heating within Io changes with time, and that the current heat flow is not representative of the long-term average.

thumb|250px|right|Rotating_image_of_IoPele.

urface

Based on their experience with the ancient surfaces of the Moon, Mars, and Mercury, scientists expected to see numerous impact craters in "Voyager 1"'s first images of Io. The density of impact craters across Io's surface would have given clues to the moon's age. However, they were surprised to discover that the surface was almost completely lacking in impact craters, but was instead covered in smooth plains dotted with tall mountains, pits of various shapes and sizes, and volcanic lava flows. Compared to most worlds observed to that point, Io's surface was covered in a variety of colorful materials (leading Io to be compared to a rotten orange or to pizza) from various sulfurous compounds.cite news| last=Britt | first=Robert Roy | title=Pizza Pie in the Sky: Understanding Io's Riot of Color | publisher=Space.com | date=16 March 2000 | url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/galileo_io_volcanoes_000316.html | accessdate=2007-07-25 ] The lack of impact craters indicated that Io's surface is geologically young, like the terrestrial surface; volcanic materials continuously bury craters as they are produced. This result was spectacularly confirmed as at least nine active volcanoes were observed by "Voyager 1".

In addition to volcanoes, Io's surface includes non-volcanic mountains, numerous lakes of molten sulfur, calderas up to several kilometers deep, and extensive flows of low-viscosity fluid (possibly some form of molten sulfur or silicate), which stretch for hundreds of kilometers. [cite news
author=Staff | title=A Volcanic Flashback
publisher=Science at NASA | date=5 November 1999
url=http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast19nov99_1.htm
accessdate=2007-06-14 ]

urface composition

Io's colorful appearance is the result of various materials produced by its extensive volcanism. These materials include silicates (such as orthopyroxene), sulfur, and sulfur dioxide.cite book |last=Carlson |first=R. W.; "et al." |editor=Lopes, R. M. C.; and Spencer, J. R. |title=Io after Galileo |year=2007 |publisher=Springer-Praxis |isbn=3-540-34681-3 |pages=pp. 194–229 |chapter=Io's surface composition ] Sulfur dioxide frost is ubiquitous across the surface of Io, forming large regions covered in white or grey materials. Sulfur is also seen in many places across the satellite, forming yellow to yellow-green regions. Sulfur deposited in the mid-latitude and polar regions is often radiation damaged, breaking up normally stable 8-chain sulfur. This radiation damage produces Io's red-brown polar regions.

Explosive volcanism, often taking the form of umbrella-shaped plumes, paints the surface with sulfurous and silicate materials. Plume deposits on Io are often colored red or white depending on the amount of sulfur and sulfur dioxide in the plume. Generally, plumes formed at volcanic vents from degassing lava contain a greater amount of S₂, producing a red "fan" deposit, or in extreme cases, large (often reaching beyond 450 km (280 mi) from the central vent) red rings.cite journal |title=Discovery of Gaseous S₂ in Io's Pele Plume |journal=Science |last=Spencer |first=J. |coauthors="et al." |pages=1208–1210 |volume=288 |issue= |year=2000 |doi=10.1126/science.288.5469.1208] A prominent example of a red-ring plume deposit is located at Pele. These red deposits consist primarily of sulfur (generally 3- and 4-chain molecular sulfur), sulfur dioxide, and perhaps Cl₂SO₂. Plumes formed at the margins of silicate lava flows (through the interaction of lava and pre-existing deposits of sulfur and sulfur dioxide) produce white or gray deposits.

Compositional mapping and Io's high density suggest that Io contains little to no water, though small pockets of water ice or hydrated minerals have been tentatively identified, most notably on the northwest flank of the mountain Gish Bar Mons.cite journal | last=Douté |first=S. |coauthors="et al." |title=Geology and activity around volcanoes on Io from the analysis of NIMS |journal=Icarus |volume=169 |issue= |pages=175–196 |year=2004 |url= |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.02.001 ] This lack of water is likely due to Jupiter being hot enough early in the evolution of the solar system to drive off volatile materials like water in the vicinity of Io, but not hot enough to do so farther out.

Volcanism

The tidal heating produced by Io's forced orbital eccentricity has led the moon to become one of the most volcanically active worlds in the solar system, with hundreds of volcanic centers and extensive lava flows. During a major eruption, lava flows tens or even hundreds of kilometers long can be produced, consisting mostly of basalt silicate lavas with either mafic or ultramafic (magnesium-rich) compositions. As a by-product of this activity, sulfur, sulfur dioxide gas and silicate pyroclastic material (like ash) are blown up to 500 km (310 mi) into space, producing large, umbrella-shaped plumes, painting the surrounding terrain in red, black, and white, and providing material for Io's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere.

Io's surface is dotted with volcanic depressions known as "paterae".cite journal |title=Paterae on Io: A new type of volcanic caldera? |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |last=Radebaugh |first=D. |coauthors="et al." |pages=33005–33020 |volume=106 |issue= |year=2001 |doi=10.1029/2000JE001406] Paterae generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls. These features resemble terrestrial calderas, but it is unknown if they are produced through collapse over an emptied lava chamber like their terrestrial cousins. One hypothesis suggests that these features are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills, and the overlying material is either blasted out or integrated into the sill.cite journal |title=A Post-Galileo view of Io's Interior |journal=Icarus |last=Keszthelyi |first=L. |coauthors="et al." |pages=271–286 |volume=169 |issue= |year=2004 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.01.005] Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars, these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are normally larger, with an average diameter of 41 km (25 mi), the largest being Loki Patera at 202 km (126 mi). Whatever the formation mechanism, the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that these features are structurally controlled, with at least half bounded by faults or mountains. These features are often the site of volcanic eruptions, either from lava flows spreading across the floors of the paterae, as at an eruption at Gish Bar Patera in 2001, or in the form of a lava lake.cite conference |title=Gish Bar Patera, Io: Geology and Volcanic Activity, 1997–2001 |booktitle=LPSC XXXIV |location=Clear Lake, Texas |last=Perry |first=J. E. |coauthors="et al." |date=2003 |id=Abstract #1720 |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2003/pdf/1720.pdf] Lava lakes on Io either have a continuously overturning lava crust, such as at Pele, or an episodically overturning crust, such as at Loki.cite journal |title=Observations and temperatures of Io's Pele Patera from Cassini and Galileo spacecraft images |journal=Icarus |last=Radebaugh |first=J. |coauthors="et al." |pages=65–79 |volume=169 |issue= |year=2004 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2003.10.019] cite journal |title=The nature of the volcanic activity at Loki: Insights from Galileo NIMS and PPR data |journal=Icarus |last=Howell |first=R. R. |coauthors=Lopes, R. M. C. |pages=448–461 |volume=186 |issue= |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.022]

Lava flows represent another major volcanic terrain on Io. Magma erupts onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae or on the plains from fissures, producing inflated, compound lava flows similar to those seen at Kilauea in Hawaii. Images from the "Galileo" spacecraft revealed that many of Io's major lava flows, like those at Prometheus and Amirani, are produced by the build-up of small breakouts of lava flows on top of older flows.cite journal |title=Imaging of volcanic activity on Jupiter's moon Io by Galileo during the Galileo Europa Mission and the Galileo Millennium Mission |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |last=Keszthelyi |first=L. |coauthors="et al." |pages=33025–33052 |volume=106 |issue= |year=2001 |doi=10.1029/2000JE001383] Larger outbreaks of lava have also been observed on Io. For example, the leading edge of the Prometheus flow moved 75 to 95 km (47 to 59 mi) between "Voyager" in 1979 and the first "Galileo" observations in 1996. A major eruption in 1997 produced more than 3,500 km² (1,350 sq mi) of fresh lava and flooded the floor of the adjacent Pillan Patera.

[

left|thumb|200_px|Five-image_sequence_of_New Horizons" images showing Io's volcano Tvashtar spewing material 330 km above its surface.] Analysis of the "Voyager" images led scientists to believe that these flows were composed mostly of various compounds of molten sulfur. However, subsequent Earth-based infrared studies and measurements from the "Galileo" spacecraft indicate that these flows are composed of basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic compositions. This hypothesis is based on temperature measurements of Io's "hotspots", or thermal-emission locations, which suggest temperatures of at least 1300 K and some as high as 1600 K.cite journal |title=New estimates for Io eruption temperatures: Implications for the interior |journal=Icarus |last=Keszthelyi |first=L. |coauthors="et al." |pages=491–502 |volume=192 |issue= |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.07.008] Initial estimates suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2000 K have since proven to be overestimates since the wrong thermal models were used to model the temperatures.

The discovery of plumes at the volcanoes Pele and Loki were the first sign that Io is geologically active. Generally, these plumes are formed when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io's volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 km/s (0.6 mps). Additional material that might be found in these volcanic plumes include sodium, potassium, and chlorine.cite journal |url= |title=Far-Ultraviolet Imaging Spectroscopy of Io's Atmosphere with HST/STIS |journal=Science |last=Roesler |first=F. L. |coauthors="et al." |pages=353–357 |volume=283 |issue=5400 |year=1999 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5400.353 |format=fee required] cite journal |url= |title=Galileo Imaging of Atmospheric Emissions from Io |journal=Science |last=Geissler |first=P. E. |coauthors="et al." |pages=448–461 |volume=285 |issue=5429 |year=1999 |doi=10.1126/science.285.5429.870 |format=fee required] These plumes appear to be formed in one of two ways.cite journal |title=Two classes of volcanic plume on Io |journal=Icarus |last=McEwen |first=A. S. |coauthors=Soderblom, L. A. |pages=197–226 |volume=58 |issue= |year=1983 |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(83)90075-1] Io's largest plumes are created when sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas dissolve from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes, often dragging silicate pyroclastic material with them. These plumes form red (from the short-chain sulfur) and black (from the silicate pyroclastics) deposits on the surface. Plumes formed in this manner are among the largest observed at Io, forming red rings more than 1000 km (620 mi) in diameter. Examples of this plume type include Pele, Tvashtar, and Dazhbog. Another type of plume is produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost, sending the sulfur skyward. This type of plume often forms bright circular deposits consisting of sulfur dioxide. These plumes are often less than 100 km (62 mi) tall, and are among the most long-lived plumes on Io. Examples include Prometheus, Amirani, and Masubi.

Mountains

Io has 100 to 150 mountains. These structures average 6 km (4 mi) in height and reach a maximum of 17.5 ± 1.5 km (10.9 ± 1 mi) at South Boösaule Montes. Mountains often appear as large (the average mountain is 157 km (98 mi) long), isolated structures with no apparent global tectonic patterns outlined, as is the case on Earth. To support the tremendous topography observed at these mountains requires compositions consisting mostly of silicate rock, as opposed to sulfur.cite journal |title=Stability of sulfur slopes on Io |journal=Icarus |last=Clow |first=G. D. |coauthors=Carr, M. H. |pages=268–279 |volume=44 |issue= |year=1980 |doi=10.1016/0019-1035(80)90022-6 ]

Despite the extensive volcanism that gives Io its distinctive appearance, nearly all its mountains are tectonic structures, and are not produced by volcanoes. Instead, most Ionian mountains form as the result of compressive stresses on the base of the lithosphere, which uplift and often tilt chunks of Io's crust through thrust faulting.cite journal | last=Schenk |first=P. M. |coauthors=Bulmer, M. H. |title=Origin of mountains on Io by thrust faulting and large-scale mass movements |journal=Science |volume=279 |issue= |pages=1514–1517 |year=1998 |url= |doi=10.1126/science.279.5356.1514 ] The compressive stresses leading to mountain formation are the result of subsidence from the continuous burial of volcanic materials. The global distribution of mountains appears to be opposite that of volcanic structures; mountains dominate areas with fewer volcanoes and vice versa.cite journal | last=McKinnon |first=W. B. |coauthors="et al." |title=Chaos on Io: A model for formation of mountain blocks by crustal heating, melting, and tilting |journal=Geology |volume=29 |issue= |pages=103–106 |year=2001 |url= |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0103:COIAMF>2.0.CO;2 ] This suggests large-scale regions in Io's lithosphere where compression (supportive of mountain formation) and extension (supportive of patera formation) dominate.cite journal | last=Tackley |first=P. J. |title=Convection in Io's asthenosphere: Redistribution of nonuniform tidal heating by mean flows |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=106 |issue= |pages=32971–32981 |year=2001 |url= |doi=10.1029/2000JE001411 ] Locally, however, mountains and paterae often abut one another, suggesting that magma often exploits faults formed during mountain formation to reach the surface.

Mountains on Io (generally, structures rising above the surrounding plains) have a variety of morphologies. Plateaus are most common. These structures resemble large, flat-topped mesas with rugged surfaces. Other mountains appear to be tilted crustal blocks, with a shallow slope from the formerly flat surface and a steep slope consisting of formerly sub-surface materials uplifted by compressive stresses. Both types of mountains often have steep scarps along one or more margins. Only a handful of mountains on Io appear to have a volcanic origin. These mountains resemble small shield volcanoes, with steep slopes (6–7°) near a small, central caldera and shallow slopes along their margins.cite journal | last=Schenk |first=P. M. |coauthors="et al." |title=Shield volcano topography and the rheology of lava flows on Io |journal=Icarus |volume=169 |issue= |pages=98–110 |year=2004 |url= |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.01.015 ] These volcanic mountains are often smaller than the average mountain on Io, averaging only 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1.2 mi) in height and 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi) wide. Other shield volcanoes with much shallower slopes are inferred from the morphology of several of Io's volcanoes, where thin flows radiate out from a central patera, such as at Ra Patera.

Nearly all mountains appear to be in some stage of degradation. Large landslide deposits are common at the base of Ionian mountains, suggesting that mass wasting is the primary form of degradation. Scalloped margins are common among Io's mesas and plateaus, the result of sulfur dioxide sapping from Io's crust, producing zones of weakness along mountain margins.cite journal | last=Moore |first=J. M. |coauthors="et al." |title=Landform degradation and slope processes on Io: The Galileo view |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=106 |issue= |pages=33223–33240 |year=2001 |url= |doi=10.1029/2000JE001375 ]

Atmosphere

Io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide (chem|SO|2) with a pressure of a billionth of an atmosphere. The thin Ionian atmosphere means any future landing probes sent to investigate Io will not need to be encased in an aeroshell-style heatshield, but instead will require retrorockets for a soft landing. The thin atmosphere also necessitates a rugged lander capable of enduring the strong Jovian radiation, which a thicker atmosphere would attenuate.

High-resolution images of Io acquired while the satellite is experiencing an eclipse reveal an aurora-like glow. As on Earth, this is due to radiation hitting the atmosphere. Aurorae usually occur near the magnetic poles of planets, but Io's are brightest near its equator. Io lacks a magnetic field of its own; therefore, electrons traveling along Jupiter's magnetic field near Io directly impact the satellite's atmosphere. More electrons collide with the atmosphere, producing the brightest aurora, where the field lines are tangent to the satellite (i.e., near the equator), since the column of gas they pass through is longer there. Aurorae associated with these tangent points on Io are observed to "rock" with the changing orientation of Jupiter's tilted magnetic dipole.cite journal | last=Retherford |first=K. D. |coauthors="et al." |title=Io's Equatorial Spots: Morphology of Neutral UV Emissions |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |volume=105 |issue=A12 |pages=27,157–27,165 |year=2000 |url= | doi=10.1029/2000JA002500 ]

ee also

* Jupiter's moons in fiction
* Moons of Jupiter

References

External links

*General information
** [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jup_Io Io Profile] by [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov NASA's Solar System Exploration]
** [http://www.nineplanets.org/io.html Bill Arnett's Io webpage]
** [http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/jupiter/moons/io.html&edu=high Io overview] from the University of Michigan's [http://www.windows.ucar.edu/ Windows to the Universe]
** [http://www.solarviews.com/eng/io.htm Calvin Hamilton's Io page]
** [http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/jupiter/io.html The Planetary Society: Io information]

*Images
** [http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/target/Io Catalog of NASA images of Io]
** [http://pirlwww.lpl.arizona.edu/missions/Galileo/releases/ Galileo Image Releases]
** [http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/soc/ New Horizons LORRI Raw Images, includes numerous Io images]
** [http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/gallery/missionPhotos.html New Horizons Image Releases]
** [http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/images/io_comp_color.pdf Map of Io with labels]
** [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/JupiterSatellites/io.html USGS Io basemaps using Galileo and Voyager images]

*Additional References
** [http://www.martiana.org/mars/jupiter/jupifrm.htm The Calendars of Jupiter]
** [http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/07912/EAE03-J-07912.pdf The Conundrum Posed by Io's Minimum Surface Temperatures]
** [http://planetologia.elte.hu/io/ Io Mountain Database]
** [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/IoAurorae/ Cassini observations of Io's visible aurorae]

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