Limited geography model

A limited geography model for the Book of Mormon is one of several theories by Latter Day Saint movement scholars that the book's narrative was a historical record of people in a limited geographical region, rather than of the entire Western Hemisphere as believed by some early Latter Day Saints. These models have situated the book's events in the Great Lakes area, South America, the Malay Peninsula and Mesoamerica, the most popular theory being the region in Mesoamerica surrounding the Isthmus of Tehuantepec Harv|Southerton|2004|p=157. [Southerton claims that " [t] here is only one serious contender accepted by most Mormon academics, which proposes that most Book of Mormon events took place in a restricted part of Mesoamerica. Only in Mesoamerica are there ruins of civilizations of the magnitude evident in the Book of Mormon."]

The limited geography models are the result of a growing school of thought among Latter Day Saint scholars that for the text of the Book of Mormon to realistically be interpreted as a historical document, the events described therein must be limited to an area of several hundred square miles Harv|Sorenson|1985|pp=1-48. Proponents of these theories find support in the text of the Book of Mormon, as well as the interpretation and correlation of archeological findings. However, as with all archaeological interpretations of the Book of Mormon, most LDS researchers believe that nothing has yet been found to conclusively link the events of the book with any particular geographical location. There are significant challenges to this theory, as the Hill Cumorah (in New York) and the remains of Zelph (in Illinois) were found many thousands of miles away from Mesoamerica.

Non-LDS historians and archaeologists do not generally accept that there is any archaeological or other support for the existence of the peoples described in the Book of Mormon, and the mainstream view of Pre-Columbian history, culture, linguistics and technology is incompatible with the civilisations described in the Book of Mormon.

Limited geography and Book of Mormon population

The Book of Mormon describes a journey by a group of people led by a prophet named Lehi from the Old World to the New World in approximately 600 B.C. LDS scholars have long taken a critical view regarding the assumption that no other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.
*In 1927, Janne M. Sjödahl stated that "students of the Book of Mormon should be cautioned against the error of supposing that all the American Indians are the descendants of Lehi, Mulek and their companions" Harv|Smith|Reynolds|1997|p=263. [See also: cite news | last =Sjodahl| first =Janne M| title =An Introduction to the Study of the Book of Mormon| work =Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press| date =1927Sjodahl also suggested that the Jaredite population may not have been completely destroyed.]
*In 1938 a church study guide for the Book of Mormon stated that "the Book of Mormon deals only with the history and expansion of three small colonies which came to America, and it does not deny or disprove the possibility of other immigrations, which probably would be unknown to its writers" Harv|Smith|Reynolds|1997|p=263. [See also: cite book| last =Berrett| first =William E| coauthors =Hunter, Milton R., et al| title =A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon| publisher =Department of Education of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints| date =1938| location =Salt Lake City| pages =48]
*From 1952 onward, LDS scholar Hugh Nibley repeatedly argued that the assumption that there were no other people present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival might be incorrect.
*In 1980 Nibley, referring to archaeological evidence, stated that the assumption of an empty New World represented a "simplistic reading" of the Book of Mormon Harv|Smith|Reynolds|1997|p=263. [See also: cite book| last =Nibley| first =Hugh W| title =The Book of Mormon and the Ruins: The Main Issues| publisher =Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies| date =1980| location =Provo, Utah]
*By the middle of the twentieth century, most LDS authors held the belief that the Book of Mormon events took place within a limited region in Mesoamerica, and that others were present on the continent at the time of Lehi's arrival Harv|Smith|1997|p=264. This geographical and population model was formally published in the official church magazine, "The Ensign", in a two-part series published in September and October 1984. [cite journal| last =Sorenson| first =John L| title =Digging into the Book of Mormon:Our Changing Understanding of Ancient America and Its Scripture (Part 1)| journal =Ensign| pages =27| publisher =Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints| date =Sept. 1984| url =http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll?f=templates$fn=default.htm| accessdate =2007-01-11 cite journal| last =Sorenson| first =John L| title =Digging into the Book of Mormon:Our Changing Understanding of Ancient America and Its Scripture (Part 2)| journal =Ensign| publisher =Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints| date =Oct. 1984| url =http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll?f=templates$fn=default.htm| accessdate =2007-01-21 ] This was followed by a book on the subject by LDS anthropologist John L. Sorenson in 1985 Harv|Sorenson|1985.

In the 1920s, LDS General Authority and historian B.H. Roberts questioned the assumption of a hemispheric geography and population model for the Book of Mormon. In his critical examination of the Book of Mormon, eventually published in 1985 under the title "Studies of the Book of Mormon", Roberts states:

[C] ould the people of Mulek and of Lehi...part of the time numbering and occupying the land at least from Yucatan to Cumorah...live and move and have their being in the land of America and not come in contact with other races and tribes of men, if such existed in the New World within Book of Mormon times? To make this seem possible the area occupied by the Nephites and Lamanites would have to be extremely limited, much more limited, I fear, than the Book of Mormon would admit our assuming Harv|Roberts|1985|p=93.

The proposal of a limited geography is coupled with the proposal that the American continents were already populated at the time of the arrival of Lehi's group. The presence of inhabitants on the American continents long before the arrival of Lehi's party is well supported by existing archaeological data. The exact date of arrival of these early inhabitants is still debated among archaeologists, with a common theory being an arrival via a land bridge in the Bering Strait approximately 14,000 years ago Harv|Coe|2002|p=41.

Matching the Book of Mormon model to existing geography

The development of the limited geography model was not an attempt to match existing physical evidence to the Book of Mormon. Instead, a geographical, chronological and cultural model was created from the text of the Book of Mormon itself. Once the model was created, it was applied to many potential locations in order to determine if there was a plausible match. The acceptance of the limited geography model by LDS scholars is now supported by a growing body of work that attempts to apply a "flesh-and-blood" reality to the cultures in the Book of Mormon Harv|Smith|Reynolds|1997|pp=259-260.

There are only two regions in the New World showing the high degree of ancient civilization required by the text of the Book of Mormon. Fact|date=February 2007 One of these locations is centered in South America in the region once occupied by the Inca civilization. The other is centered in Mesoamerica in the region once occupied by the Maya and the Olmec civilizations.Fact|date=February 2007 Of the two, only the civilizations in the Mesoamerican region are known to have had a sophisticated form of writing Harv|Coe|2002|p=13.

The Limited Geography Model has been critiqued by a number of non-LDS scholars, who suggest that it is not an adequate explanation for Book of Mormon geography and that the locations, events, and flora and fauna described in it do not precisely match (Harvnb|Matheny|Metcalfe|1994;Harvnb|Wunderli|2002). In response to one of these critiques in 1994, Sorenson reaffirmed his proposal for a limited Mesoamerican geographical setting Harv|Sorenson|1994.

Mesoamerican setting

According to LDS scholars, the application of the Book of Mormon limited geography model to a Mesoamerican setting produces a highly plausible match Harv|Sorenson|1985|pp=46-47. LDS scholars use "contextual knowledge" in order to establish a plausible setting for the cultural events of the Book of Mormon within the context of known Mesoamerican historical settings. The goal is to determine places and times at which Book of Mormon events occurred that correlate with similar events in the Mesoamerican historical record Harv|Smith|Reynolds|1997|pp=259-260.Based on extensive textual analysis and comparison of the Book of Mormon limited geography model to existing geographical regions, time-lines and cultures, the majority of LDS scholars now agree that the Book of Mormon geography is centered in Mesoamerica around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the area of current day Guatemala and the southern Mexico States of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and the surrounding area Harv|Sorenson|1985|pp=35-36.

Existence of ancient system of writing

Support for the hypothesis of Mesoamerica as a plausible location for a limited Book of Mormon geography requires that the ancient inhabitants have a highly developed system of writing. Mesoamerica is the only area in the Americas where evidence survives of an ancient system of writing Harv|Coe|2002|p=13. [Coe states that " [a] ll the Mesoamerican Indians shared a number of traits which were more or less peculiar to them and absent or rare elsewhere in the New World: Hieroglyphic writing, books of fig-bark paper or deerskin which were folded like screens, a complex permutation calendar..."] There have been identified at least six pre-Christian era Mesoamerican systems of writing Harv|Clark|2005. Although much of this writing has been deciphered, there are still instances of ancient writing from these cultures that scholars have not yet been able to translate. [cite web| title =Mesoamerican Relic provides new clues to mysterious ancient writing system| work =BYU News| publisher =Brigham Young University| url =http://byunews.byu.edu/print_release.aspx?story=archive04/Jan/Isthmian| accessdate =2007-01-16 ]

Directions

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is bounded by a northern and a southern coast, whereas the "narrow neck" described in the Book of Mormon is said to be surrounded by a west sea and an east sea (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=22|verse=32). Sorenson suggests that this is explained by understanding the manner in which ancient cultures label directions. He points out that the Israelites in Palestine defined their directions as though they were standing with their backs to the sea. The direction "sea" (seaward) denoted "west" while the direction "fore" (inland) denoted "east". The direction "south" was denoted by "right hand" and the direction "north" by "left hand." In the case of Palestine, these directions correlated with the actual geography of the north-south coast Harv|Sorenson|1985|pp=38-9. In the language used by the Maya, the word "south" meant "on the right hand" and "north" meant "on the left" Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=39. One researcher suggested that ancient Maya directions were set 45 degrees different from our own. [cite book| last =Vogt| first =Evan Z| title =Zinacantan: A Maya Community in the Highlands of Chiapas| publisher =Harvard University Press| date =1969| location =Cambridge| pages =602] The Book of Mormon, however, leads us to ask how a colony of ancient Israelites would have coordinated directions outside Palestine. It is important to note that Hebraic scholars disagree with Sorenson’s generalized interpretation of Israelite coordinates. Sorenson is correct in pointing out that the expression “seaward” in Palestine commonly means "west". “Sea” or “seaward” in Hebrew can substitute for “west” when referring to the local Mediterranean Sea. Yehoshua (Joshua) 1:4 reads, “…as far as the great sea [Mediterranean] toward the going down of the sun, shall be your border.” However, Sorenson is incorrect in suggesting that Israelites outside of Palestine would have generally defined "west" standing with their backs to a sea. The Israelite coordinate system is based on the perceived movement of the heavenly quarters. "East" is therefore defined not by facing inland from an arbitrary coast, but by standing before the general direction of the rising sun. (מִזְרָח, Shemot (Exodus) 27:13, Devarim (Deuteronomy) 3:27, Yehoshua (Joshua) 11:3, Tehillim (Psalms) 113:3) Facing sunrise, “before” is the same as "east", the “right hand” directs "south", the “left hand” directs "north" and “behind” becomes "west". (Yehoshua (Joshua) 12:3, Yo'el (Joel) 2:20) “Place of sunset” (מַעֲרָב) properly defines "Israelite west" outside of Palestine. (Tehillim (Psalms) 103:12, Yesha’yahu (Isaiah) 43:5) There is in fact an instance in Hebrew scripture in which “from the sea” may be translated “from the south”, possibly referring to the Arabian Sea. (Tehillim (Psalms) 107:3). See also Encyclopedia Judaica, MIZRAH; SUN.

The "narrow neck" of land

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, at convert|120|mi|km wide, is considered by LDS scholars to be "just within the range of plausibility" for the "day and a half’s journey for a Nephite" indicated by the text of the Book of Mormon Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=36, although critics question this association. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec goes from east to west, bordering the Gulf of Mexico on the north (which LDS scholars associate with the "east sea") and the Pacific Ocean on the south (the "west sea"). sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=22|verse=32 says that "it was only the distance of a day and a half's journey for a Nephite... from the east to the west sea" (traveling south). sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Helaman|chapter=4|verse=7 says that "they did fortify... from the west sea, even unto the east; it being a day's journey for a Nephite, on the line which they had fortified..." (traveling north). LDS scholars note that, on a fortified line, quick communication is essential and the speed "for a Nephite" might reasonably be faster than that of some other group Harv|Roper|2000. Also, this length of time likely referred to the speed of couriers, which John L. Sorenson has speculated might be as fast as convert|100|mi|km a day. [Native Mexican runners have been documented running up to 100 miles per day, see John L. Sorenson, The Geography of Book of Mormon Events: A Source Book, 1992, 393-94] Matthew Roper believes that part of the journey would be taken on the Coatzacoalcos River, which flows North into the Gulf of Mexico and covers nearly half the distance across the isthmus. This would account for the difference in time of travel; only one day to travel with the current north but one and a half days traveling south, against the current. [ [http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=insights&id=132 Travel across the "Narrow Neck of Land"] by Matthew Roper] The route directly across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from one coast to the other is part of the known system of Mesoamerican trade routes Harv|Phillips|Jones|2005|p=65.

Effect on existing population with arrival of external groups

The Limited Geography Model suggests that the introduction of a small, external population into the existing Mesoamerican population would initially show little evidence in the archaeological record Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=85. It is suggested by LDS scholars that certain cultural features spread out from the Mesoamerican area to surrounding regions over time after the arrival of external groups Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=93.

Archaeologist Michael D. Coe, one of the foremost experts on the Maya, notes that there are a number of contradictory theories that attempt to account for the sudden rise of Maya civilization during the Late Preclassic period. He states that "One of the most persistent holds that the previously undistinguished Maya came under the influence of travelers from shores as distant as the China coast" Harv|Coe|2002|p=57. [It should be noted that Coe points out that "no objects manufactured in any part of the Old World have been identified in any Maya site" and that "few theories involving trans-Pacific or trans-Atlantic contact have survived scientific scrutiny."] Coe suggests that " [t] he possibility of some trans-Pacific influence on Mesoamerican cultures cannot, however, be so easily dismissed," and that it is possible "that Asian intellectuals may have established some sort of contact with their Mesoamerican counterparts by the end of the Preclassic" Harv|Coe|2002|p=57. [It must be noted that Coe does not endorse or support the proposition that there was any Old World Semitic influence in Mesoamerica, nor that the Book of Mormon has any support through archaeology or anthropology. See [http://www.dialoguejournal.com/ "Mormons and Archaeology: An Outside View," in "Dialogue, A Journal of Mormon Thought", Vol 8, No 2, (Summer 1973), p. 42.] ]

Determining plausible locations for cities and events

LDS scholars believe that the Tehuantapec model provides a significant enough match with existing geography, ancient cultures and ruins to propose plausible locations for certain Book of Mormon locations and events.

"Waters of Mormon" and city "Jerusalem"

The body of water referred to as "The Waters of Mormon” is stated to have been in “the land which was in the borders of Nephi." (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=5|verse=3). Lake Atitlan is considered to be the only plausible candidate for this body of water if the land of Nephi is assumed to centered in the area of Kaminaljuyu (near Guatemala City). LDS scholars state that the relative locations and geographical characteristics of the "Land of Nephi" and the “Waters of Mormon” are consistent with the relative geographical locations of Kaminaljuyu and Lake Atitlan Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=176. The lake is nine miles (14 km) long and four miles (6 km) wide. According to the Book of Mormon, the city called Jerusalem was covered by waters at the time of destruction associated with Jesus Christ’s death. (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=9|verse=7). Lake Atitlan is surrounded by volcanoes. As a result of volcanic activity, the level of the lake is known to have shifted very abruptly (up to 60 feet) during historical times. In 1985, Sorenson speculated that the city of Jerusalem was located adjacent to this lake and was submerged by such activity, although no evidence of a submerged city was evident at the time the statement was made Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=224. In recent years, submerged pre-Columbian ruins have been found in the depths of Lake Atitlan. [cite news | last = Ordoñez| first = Antonio | title = En el fondo del lago hay esquinas (At the bottom of the lake there are corners)| work =El Periodico| language =Spanish| date =Aug. 22, 2005| url =http://www.visitguatemala.com/site/novedades/novedadesint.php?id_novedad=71&id| accessdate = 2007-02-22 ] [ cite news | title =Pre-Columbian City Found in Guatemala| work =Prensa Latina| language =English | date =May 18, 2006| url = http://www.123alert.org/cgi-bin/index.pl?f=rcat&s=viewa&i=0000000794&c=06020300| accessdate =2007-02-22 ] [cite journal| title=The Submergence of the City of Jerusalem in the Land of Nephi| journal=Insights| publisher=FARMS| volume=22| year=2002]

Location of the final battles of the Lamanites and the Nephites

Several proponents of the Tehuantapec model have proposed that the final battles of the Lamanites and the Nephite civilizations occurred at the "Cerro El Vigia" ("Lookout Hill"), a 3000 foot (800 m) tall extinct volcano located in the northwestern section of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas mountain range in Mexico. Significantly larger than the convert|110|ft|m|sing=on tall "Hill Cumorah" located in New York, the "Cerro El Vigia" is said to be a plausible location for the "Hill Ramah" and "Hill Cumorah" described in the Book of Mormon Harv|Palmer|1990. The hill fits certain requirements that would need to be met in order to qualify as the Hill Cumorah:
*The presence of plains at the base of the hill able to accommodate large armies.
*The hill must be of sufficient size that a million people could be "arrayed in battle" around its base.
*The hill must be high enough that survivors who were wounded in battle would be able to hide safely at the top without being seen by the Lamanites below, but not so high that wounded men could not climb it at night Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=350. Sorenson suggests that, if this is the correct hill, then Mormon had once hidden the Nephite archive of records somewhere within it.]

Moroni and the final resting place of the plates

The Limited Geography Model raises the question about the location in which Joseph Smith reported finding the golden plates in western New York. This is often referred to by LDS scholars as the “Two Cumorahs” question Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=44. [Sorenson states: “ [H] ow did Joseph Smith obtain the gold plates in upstate New York if the final battleground of the Nephites was in Mesoamerica?”] The Book of Mormon states that the final battles of both the Jaredite and the Nephite people took place near the narrow neck of land, which rules out the hill “Cumorah” in New York as being the location of these battles Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=44.

In the Book of Mormon narrative, the Nephite historian Mormon states that he “hid up in the hill Cumorah all the records which had been entrusted to me by the hand of the Lord, save it were these few plates which I gave unto my son Moroni.” (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mormon|chapter=6|verse=6). The “hill Cumorah” referred to by Mormon is the hill located near the scene of the final battle between the Nephites and the Lamanites. Moroni continues to record information on these plates as late as 35 years after they were given to him (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Moroni|chapter=10|verse=1). LDS scholars suggest that the most obvious method by which the plates reached New York was that Moroni carried them there during this long interim Harv|Sorenson|1985|p=44-45. [Sorenson illustrates as an example a similar trip made in the mid-sixteenth century by a shipwrecked sailor named David Ingram, who walked from Tampico, Mexico to the St. John River in Canada over a period of 11 months.]

One author criticizes this theory as being “problematic” because “Moroni makes it clear that he buried the plates in the vicinity of the Nephites’ destruction, not convert|2000|mi|km away in some remote region.” To support this assumption, it is postulated that Moroni buried the plates near the scene of the final battle and then returned 20 years later to retrieve them and add information to them before his final farewell, in which he states that his intention to “seal up these records" Harv|Vogel|2004|p=648. [Vogel concludes “Thus, Moroni is old and ready to die when he hides the plates in the same hill around which the Nephites were destroyed.”] The assumption that Moroni hid the plates at the time of the final battle is based upon sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mormon|chapter=8|verse=3-4, in which Moroni states “Therefore I will write and hide up the records in the earth; and whither I go it mattereth not.” Continued reading of the text reveals that Moroni abridged the Book of Ether and added it to the record after making this statement. Moroni later writes “wherefore, I wander whithersoever I can for the safety of mine own life. Wherefore, I write a few more things, contrary to that which I had supposed; for I had supposed not to have written any more.” (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Moroni|chapter=1|verse=3-4) There is no explicit mention in the Book of Mormon of Moroni either having hidden the plates at the time of the final battle or having returned to this location to add more to them years later.

Great Lakes setting

Some LDS researchers have proposed a limited Great Lakes setting for the Book of Mormon Harv|Aston|1998. One of these proposals has the histories of the Jaredite, Nephite and Lamanite civilizations taking place in a small area of southern Ontario and western New York. The seas surrounding the land are said to be Lakes Huron, Ontario, and Erie Harv|Curtis|1988.

LDS scholars have given the following reasons for discounting some of these theories:
*A lack of appropriate geographical features, such as highlands and lowlands. It should be noted, however, that the limited Great Lakes setting proposed by Olive meets topographical requirements surprisingly well Harv|Olive|2000.
*The presumed lack of seismic activity in the northeastern United States. Actually western New York is subject to strong anomalous earthquakes Harv|Kafka|2004. [A chart provided by the U. S. Geological Survey depicts magnitude 3.0 to 6.6 in the northeastern U.S. and Canada for the years spanning 1924-1974, http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/new_york/history.php ]
*The presumption that "snow" and "cold" are not mentioned in the Book of Mormon - except in the instance where Nephi, after arriving in the Promised Land of America, described his previous visions to future generations “who should possess the land” (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=1 Nephi|chapter=11|verse=8, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=1 Nephi|chapter=19|verse=1-5, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=2 Nephi|chapter=5|verse=28-33) Nephi’s expression translated “…driven snow”, which presumably his descendents could relate to, implies that Nephi had experienced something like a blizzard – "snow" carried by the wind into drifts (Shakespeare, William, "Winter’s Tale", Act 4, character: Autolycus). Nephi’s exact wording is without parallel in the Bible. It rarely snows in temperate Jerusalem. Jewish prophets were acquainted with the white-capped mountains of Lebanon to the north (sourcetext|source=Bible|book=Jeremiah|chapter=18|verse=14, sourcetext|source=Bible|book=Isaiah|chapter=1|verse=18, sourcetext|source=Bible|book=Psalms|chapter=51|verse=7). It is informative to compare Nephi’s Promised Land description of the Tree of Life, with his father Lehi’s description of its fruit. In the wilderness, adjacent to the Red Sea, Lehi described the fruit of the Tree of Life to his family, but did not specifically liken its “whiteness” to "snow" (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=1 Nephi|chapter=8|verse=11). The Book of Mormon also describes severe “hail”, a weather condition favored in temperate climates (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mosiah|chapter=12|verse=6, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Helaman|chapter=5|verse=12). The Hebrew word “barad” translated “hail”, relates to a Semitic term for "cold" or "become cold" (ברד, "The New Brown-Driver-Briggs-Gesenius Hebrew Aramaic Lexicon")

Beginning in the "spring" (the month of the “Abib”, a critical stage of barley maturation), and continuing through the year, four seasons are required for keeping all of the ordinances of the Law of Moses (sourcetext|source=Bible|book=Deuteronomy|chapter=16|verse=1-12, sourcetext|source=Bible|book=Exodus|chapter=23|verse=14-17, sourcetext|source=Bible|book=Exodus|chapter=34|verse=18-22, sourcetext|source=Bible|book=Leviticus|chapter=23). [A detailed explanation of the Hebrew agricultural term “aviv” (אָבִיב, “Abib” in the KJV) can be found at http://www.karaite-korner.org/abib.shtml] . Tropical Mesoamerica experiences a wet and a dry season year round. There is presently no evidence of pre-Columbian barley in Central America. Evidence of barley cultivation in ancient northern American has been found near the Great Lakes Harv|Bennett|2000. When the Book of Mormon mentions “seasons”, it is clear from the context that only part of the year is referred to (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mosiah|chapter=18|verse=4, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=46|verse=40). It may be concluded that Book of Mormon lands were subject to more than two seasons with no impediment to keeping the ordinances of Israel (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=2 Nephi|chapter=5|verse=10). Evidence indicates that winters were milder in western New York during Book of Mormon times. [Olive cites Ritchie, William A., "The Archaeology of New York State",p.32; "Indian History of the of New York State", Ed Leaflet, No. 6, pp.6,10; "Prehistoric Archaeology and the New York State Museum", Ed Leaflet, No. 22, p.5; http://www.bookofmormonlands.com/link%20eleven.htm] Even in modern times, humid, western New York occasionally experiences a heat index of 80 - convert|90|°F|°C|abbr=on in the spring and early summer (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=51|verse=33). [Heat index indicates how hot is feels, taking into account humidity. Prolonged exposure and activity subject to a heat index in the 80 - convert|90|°F|°C|abbr=on range is known to cause “fatigue”. Station KBUF posts “Seasonal Weather Averages for Buffalo Niagara International”]
*It is believed by some, that Book of Mormon lands must be located in a volcanically active region, but there is no explicit mention of volcanoes or volcanism in the text. Smoke caused by the burning of forests and timber cities can be ascertained, but what else may have contributed to episodes of daytime darkness described in the Book of Mormon, is not clear. The Book of Mormon seems to make a distinction between the "vapor of smoke" and "mist" (water vapor?). (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=8|verse=7-22, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=9|verse=10-11, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=10|verse=13-14, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Helaman|chapter=5|verse=40-43). Author Phyllis Carol Olive is perhaps the first expert on Book of Mormon lands to call attention to the article titled “THE DARK DAYS AND EARTHQUAKES IN CANADA” published in "The Historical Magazine and Notes and Queries Concerning the Antiquities, History and Biography of America", Vol. VIII, 1864. It is a historical fact that the regions of Canada just to the north of New York have been subject not only to violent earthquakes but also enigmatic episodes of daytime darkness so profound and extensive that observes, right or wrong, have attributed the phenomena to volcanism. "The Historical Magazine" of 1864, cites several documented examples and presents the opinions of notable witnesses of the phenomena [ "The Historical Magazine and Notes and Queries Concerning the Antiquities, History and Biography of America", editor John G. Shea, New York, Vol. VIII, 1864, pp. 60-65] .
*Opponents of a limited Great Lakes setting say that the cultures of the ancient inhabitants of the area (mound builder (people)) do not match the Book of Mormon narrative, even though North American peoples associated with these cultures, are known to have been accomplished metal workers, and to have made impressive works of earth, timber, rock, and plaster (“cement”, see 19th century definition, Oxford Dictionary; Joseph Smith History 1:52), not unlike the constructions described in the Book of Mormon (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=49|verse=2-18, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=50|verse=1-4, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Helaman|chapter=3|verse=9). Joseph Smith affirmed that at least some of the mound builders were the Nephites of the Book of Mormon. [On the banks of the Mississippi, June 4, 1834, “…The whole of our journey, in the midst of so large a company of social honest and sincere men, wandering over the plains of the Nephites, recounting occasionally the history of the Book of Mormon, roving over the mounds of that once beloved people of the Lord, picking up their skulls & their bones, as proof of its divine authenticity…” ("Personal Writings of Joseph Smith", compiled and edited by Dean C. Jessee, S.L.C, Deseret Book, 2002, pp. 345-346). Stephens’ "Incidents of Travel in Central America" had evidently not changed Joseph Smith’s mind regarding Book of Mormon events taking place in northern America, hence the July 15, 1842 editorial, “American Antiquities”, "Times and Seasons", Volume 3, Number 18, pp 858-860)]
*In opposition to placing the setting for the Book of Mormon in lands near the Great Lakes (lands now occupied by the United States of America, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=1 Nephi|chapter=13|verse=30, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=2 Nephi|chapter=10|verse=10-11, sourcetext|source=Doctrine and Covenants|chapter=10|verse=48-51) it has been suggested that a feature as significant as Niagara Falls could not escape mention in the Book of Mormon had this been the area in which the civilizations described in it existed Harv|Palmer|1990. However, in the limited Great Lakes setting proposed by Olive, Niagara Falls situate on a watery western extremity and would not have been encountered in any of the situations detailed in the abridged Nephite narrative. The fact that western New York was inundated in antiquity fits the description found in sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Ether|chapter=13|verse=2. Olive points out that there were several cataracts along the northern escarpment, resulting from the overflow of old Lake Tonawanda (believed to be the Book of Mormon’s land-dividing sea, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Ether|chapter=10|verse=20). More than one of these may have rivaled the falls of Niagara Harv|Olive|2008. The land northward in Olive’s Book of Mormon settings, certainly qualifies as a land of “many water, rivers and fountains” (Mormon 6:4). It may well be asked, why Niagara Falls should have received so much attention.

Particularly troublesome to the Mesoamerica geography hypothesis, is the fact LDS scripture places Cumorah, a land which the Book of Mormon says is “in a land of many waters, rivers, and fountains”, near New York’s Finger Lakes, just south of Lake Ontario (sourcetext|source=Doctrine and Covenants|chapter=128|verse=20; Church History maps 1, 2 and 3 accompanying the Doctrine and Covenants). Based on LDS scripture, and statements of early church members, several General Authorities of the church have publicly opposed the idea that Cumorah is in Mexico or Central America. [Among some of the strongest statements by church General Authorities, regarding Mexican / Mesoamerican Cumorah theory, are the following: Smith, Joseph Fielding, "Doctrines of Salvation", Volume 3, pp. 233-234; McConkie, Bruce R., CUMORAH, "Mormon Doctrine"; Peterson, Mark E. 143 Annual Conference of the Church, April 4-6, "The Improvement Era", 1953, pp. 83-84]

It is clear that the Book of Mormon “land northward” has a limiting northern boundary. The land is likely bounded on the north by the exceedingly large “waters of Ripliancum”, whereas Southern Mexico is open on the north to the continent (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Ether|chapter=15|verse=8-11, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=4|verse=23, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=7|verse=12, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=50|verse=29, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Helaman|chapter=3|verse=8). In counties near Lake Ontario, E.G. Squier, commissioned by the Smithsonian Institution, documented the remains of numerous earth and timber “castles” and “towns” constructed by the indigenous peoples of western New York Harv|Squier|1849. With the expansion of modern civilization, aboriginal monuments and antiquities have vanished from the New York landscape.

From written statements made by Joseph Smith, it may be concluded that Book of Mormon peoples or their descendents migrated from “the lake country of America” (near Lake Ontario) to Mexico and Central America. There is no known statement by Joseph Smith, however, which explicitly asserts that Book of Mormon lands are to be found in Mexico and Central America. [Serving as both official and acting editor in the spring and summer of 1842, Joseph Smith published several articles in the "Times and Seasons" pertinent to Book of Mormon geography. We can readily identify Joseph’s editorials as they end with his “ED”. In one of these articles, the editor compares a Native American "Flood Legend" (Ontario County, N. Y.) with one from Mexico. Joseph informs us that the Jaredites arrived in the “lake country of America…choice above all the land [s] of the earth” (“Traits of Mosaic History Found among the Aztaeca Nations”, "Times and Seasons", Vol. 3, No 16, June 15, 1842; pg 818). In May, 1842 Joseph Smith published an editorial on “A CATACOMB OF MUMMIES FOUND IN KENTUCKY” which he correlated with “descendents of Israel coming to this continent…” and offered it as “strong evidence of the authenticity of the Book of Mormon”. Joseph had previously read John Lloyd Stephens’ two volume work and recommended it as supporting “the testimony of the Book of Mormon” and as “the most correct luminous & comprehensive” of all histories “pertaining to the antiquities of this country” (To John Bernhisel, 16 November, 1841, "Personal Writings of Joseph Smith", compiled and edited by Dean C. Jessee, S.L.C, Deseret Book, 2002, pg 533). Joseph evidently believed that Book of Mormon peoples had migrated to Central America, but no where does he specifically state that Book of Mormon lands are to be found there (History of the Church Volume 5, pg 44). Joseph relied mainly on the work of Josiah Priest (for whom he had less regard) to provide material support for a northern American Book of Mormon setting (“AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES”, "Times and Seasons", Vol. 3, No 18, July 15, 1842; pg 858)]

During the fall of 1842, Joseph Smith found it necessary to go into hiding (sourcetext|source=Doctrine and Covenants|chapter=127|verse=1, sourcetext|source=Doctrine and Covenants|chapter=128|verse=1). During this time, several anonymous and contradictory articles, doting on the discoveries of John Lloyd Stephens, were published in the church’s "Times and Seasons" newspaper. Joseph Smith thought highly of Stephens’ bestseller but only made minor mention of it in his "AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES" editorial (July 15, 1842). The anonymous “ZARAHEMLA” article (October 1, 1842), on the other hand, alleges that the Central American ruins of Quirigua (now known to date more recent than Book of Mormon times) are none other than the ruins of Zarahemla or some other Book of Mormon city. This sensational piece was published in the same issue as a signed letter to the church from Joseph Smith (in hiding). Inferred in Joseph Smith’s epistle (dated September 6, 1842) is the Finger Lakes location of Cumorah. A careful study of the Book of Mormon shows that Zarahemla cannot be thousands of miles distance from the land Cumorah (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mosiah|chapter=8|verse=7-8, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mosiah|chapter=21|verse=25-26, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mormon|chapter=6|verse=2-6, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Ether|chapter=1|verse=1-2, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Ether|chapter=15|verse=11-12).

It is unlikely that things as common as "monkeys" (translated “apes” in the KJV) and "palm trees" could escape mention in the Book of Mormon had Mesoamerica been the area in which the civilizations describes in it existed. In the Book of Mormon, the only reference to anything like a "jaguar" is “leopard”, and this occurs only in quotations from the biblical prophet Isaiah. On the other hand, “lions” (possibly cougars) are mentioned more than once in Nephite history (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Mosiah|chapter=20|verse=10, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Alma|chapter=14|verse=29). Contrary to several artistic depictions, there is no explicit reference to any temple or pyramid made of hewn stone in New World Book of Mormon lands. We read that the Nephites constructed their temples from timber (sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=2 Nephi|chapter=5|verse=15-16, sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=Helaman|chapter=3|verse=9). By comparison, there are numerous references to buildings made of hewn stone in the Old Testament (sourcetext|source=Bible|book=1 Kings|chapter=5|verse=15).

outh American setting

A commonly held belief among the LDS for many years was that Lehi's group landed on the coast of Chile. This is supported by a record written in 1836 by Frederick G. Williams which suggests that Joseph Smith once stated that Lehi "landed on the continent of South America, in Chile, thirty degrees, south latitude." [cite book| last =Richards| first =Franklin| coauthors =Little, James A. (eds)| title =Compendium| publisher =Deseret News Press| date =1886| location =Salt Lake City| pages =289 ] In the mid-1970's, several books were published by LDS researchers that proposed this geographical model Harv|Priddis|1975.

A booklet published in 1882 by Franklin D. Richards made the claim that this information had been received by revelation through Joseph Smith.

LEHI'S TRAVELS.—Revelation to Joseph the Seer. The course that Lehi and his company traveled from Jerusalem to the place of their destination: They traveled nearly a south, southeast direction until they came to the nineteenth degree of north latitude; then, nearly east to the Sea of Arabia, then sailed in a southeast direction, and landed on the continent of South America, in Chili [sic] , thirty degrees south latitude. [Franklin D. Richards and James A. Little, A Compendium of the Doctrines of the Gospel (Salt Lake City: Deseret News, 1882), 289.]

Challengers of the limited geography model use this statement, along with the teachings of early Mormon missionaries supporting the idea of a landing in Chile, as evidence that the widespread belief in the hemispheric geography model was based upon a revelation through Joseph Smith, and that any information to the contrary constitutes “apologetic denial" Harv|Vogel|2004|p=629 note 18. In addition, the story of Zelph is used to support the idea the Joseph Smith promoted a hemispheric geography for the Book of Mormon.LDS scholars point out that in the earlier document authored by Frederick G. Williams, that the words "Lehi's Travels" and "Revelation to Joseph the Seer" do not appear in this text as they do in the subsequent 1882 publication Harv|Roper|2004.

A paper authored by LDS affiliated research group FARMS notes that the document authored by Frederick G. Williams “does not attribute the statement to Joseph Smith and, although Richards follows closely the Williams account, he gives no source for the statement or the title. There is no known earlier historical evidence associating this specific statement with Joseph Smith." [cite journal| last=Williams| first=Frederick G. III| title=Did Lehi Land in Chile?: An Assessment of the Frederick G. Williams Statement| journal=FARMS paper| year=1988| pages=3–4]

The claim of a landfall in Chile may have actually originated with Orson Pratt, who often included the Chile landing hypothesis in his writings and said that “this view was actually based upon his own inference from the Book of Mormon text" Harv|Roper|2004. In a talk given in 1872, Pratt described Lehi’s group as “landing on the western coast of what is now called South America. As near as we can judge from the description of the country contained in this record the first landing place was in Chili (sic), not far from where the city of Valparaiso now stands” Harv|Pratt|1872|p=325. Pratt's opinions were incorporated into the geographical footnotes that he added into the 1879 edition of the Book of Mormon Harv|Sorenson|Roper|2002.

Malay Peninsular setting

Some Latter Day Saint scholars have suggested that it is possible that the events recorded in the Book of Mormon took place in a limited area somewhere other than the Western Hemisphere. For example, one scholar has suggested that many Book of Mormon events could plausibly be placed in the Malay Peninsula.Ralph A. Olsen, [http://www.sunstoneonline.com/magazine/issues/131/30-34_a_Olsen_book%20of%20mormon%20lands.pdf "A Malay Site for Book of Mormon Events"] , "Sunstone Magazine", Mar. 2004, 30.] This author has acknowledged that consideration of his "Malay hypothesis" by LDS scholars would require Book of Mormon archaeology to "undergo a radical paradigm shift—one that many would consider quite far-fetched."

Notes

References

#Citation
last =Aston
first =Duane R
title =Return to Cumorah
publisher =American River Publications
year=1998
place=Sacramento, California
isbn=0965516709 .
#Citation
last = Bennett
first = Robert R
title = Barley and Wheat in the Book of Mormon
publisher = Maxwell Institute
year = 2007
contribution-url=http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=transcripts&id=126 .
#Citation
last =Clark
first =John E
contribution =Archaeology, Relics, and Book of Mormon Belief
title =Journal of Book of Mormon Studies
volume =14
issue =2
pages =38-49
publisher =Maxwell Institute
year =2005
contribution-url =http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=jbms&id=376
accessdate =2007-01-16 .
#Citation
last =Coe
first =Michael D
author-link=Michael D. Coe
title =The Maya
edition=6th
publisher =Thames & Hudson
year=2002
place=New York
isbn=0-500-28066-5 .
#Citation
last=Curtis
first=Delbert W
title=The Land of the Nephites
year=1988
place=Orem, Utah .
#Citation
last = Kafka
first=Alan L
title = Why Does the Earth Quake in New England? The Science of Unexpected Earthquakes
publisher = Weston Observatory, Department of Geology and Geophysics
year = 2004
place = Boston College
contribution-url=http://www2.bc.edu/~kafka/Why_Quakes/why_quakes.html .
#Citation
Surname1=Matheny
Given1=Deanne G
editor=Brent Lee Metcalfe
journal=New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology
title=Does the Shoe Fit? A Critique of the Limited Tehuantepec Geography
year=1994
isbn=1560850175
publisher=Signature Books
location=Salt Lake City, Utah .
#Citation
last = Olive
first = Phyllis C
title = The Lost Lands of the Book of Mormon
publisher = Bonneville Books
year = 2000
place = Springville, Utah
isbn = 1-55517-510-4 .
#Citation
last = Olive
first = Phyllis C
title = The Narrow Neck of Land As Part of the Ancient New York Landscape
year = 2008
contribution-url=http://www.bookofmormonlands.com/link%20four.htm .
#Citation
last=Palmer
first=David A
title=The Land of the Nephites
journal=FARMS Review of Books
volume=2
issue=1
year=1990
publisher=Maxwell Institute
place=Provo, Utah
url=http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=29
accessdate=2007-02-21 .
#Citation
Surname1=Phillips
Given1=Charles
Surname2=Jones
Given2=David M
title =Aztec & Maya: Life in an Ancient Civilization
publisher =Hermes House
year=2005
place=London .
#Citation
last=Pratt
first=Orson
author-link=Orson Pratt
contribution=Nephite America—The Day of God's Power—The Shepherd of Israel
date=February 11, 1872
year=1872
title=Journal of Discourses Delivered by President Brigham Young, His Two Counselors, and the Twelve Apostles, and Others
editor1-last=Watt
editor1-first=G.D.
editor1-link=George D. Watt
volume=14
place=Liverpool
publisher=Daniel H. Wells
pages=323-335
contribution-url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Journal_of_Discourses/Volume14/Nephite_America%2C_etc.?oldid=404390 .
#Citation
last=Priddis
first= Venice
title=The Book and the

year=1975
place=Salt Lake City, Utah
publisher=Bookcraft
isbn=0-88494-277-5 .
#Citation
last=Roberts
first=Brigham H
author-link=B. H. Roberts
editor=Brigham D. Madsen
title=Studies of the Book of Mormon
publisher=University of Illinois Press
place=Urbana, Illinois
year=1985
isbn=0252010434.
#Citation
last=Roper
first=Matthew
contribution=Travel across the "Narrow Neck of Land"
title=Insights
publisher=Maxwell Institute
place=Provo, Utah
year=2000
volume=20
issue=5
contribution-url=http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=insights&id=132
accessdate=207-07-03 .
#Citation
last=Roper
first=Matthew
contribution=Limited Geography and the Book of Mormon: Historical Antecedents and Early Interpretations
title=FARMS Review
volume=16
issue=2
year=2004
publisher=Maxwell Institute
place=Provo, Utah
pages=225-76
contribution-url=http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=555
accessdate=2007-02-22 .
#Citation
last =Sorenson
first =John L
author-link =John L. Sorenson
title =An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon
publisher =Deseret Book and The Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies
year=1985
place=Salt Lake City, Utah
isbn=0-87747-608-X .
#Citation
last=Sorenson
first=John L
author-link=John L. Sorenson
title=FARMS Review of Books
contribution=Viva Zapato! Hurray for the Shoe!
year=1994
volume=6
issue=1
publisher=Maxwell Institute
pages=297-361
contribution-url=http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=142
accessdate=2007-01-23 .
#Citation
Surname1=Sorenson
Given1=John L
author1-link=John L. Sorenson
Surname2=Roper
Given2=Matthew
title=Before DNA
journal=Journal of Book of Mormon Studies
volume=12
issue=1
year=2003
url=http://www.farmsresearch.com/display.php?table=jbms&id=305
publisher=Maxwell Institute
place=Provo, Utah
accessdate=2007-03-05 .
#Citation
Surname1=Smith
Given1=James E
editor=Noel B. Reynolds
title =How Many Nephites?: The Book of Mormon at the Bar of Demography
journal =Book of Mormon Authorship Revisited
publisher =Deseret Book Company and Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies
year=1997
url=http://www.farmsresearch.com/publications/bookschapter.php?bookid=41&chapid=190
isbn=0-934893-25-X .
#Citation
last =Southerton
first =Simon G
author-link=Simon Southerton
title =Losing a Lost Tribe: Native Americans, DNA and the Mormon Church
publisher =Signature Books
year=2004
place=Salt Lake City
isbn=1-56085-181-3 .
#Citation
last = Squier
first = Ephraim G
title = Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York
publication = Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge
volume = 2
year = 1849 .
#Citation
last=Vogel
first=Dan
author-link=Dan Vogel
title=
year=2004
publisher=Signature Books
place=Salt Lake City, Utah
isbn=1560851791 .
#Citation
last=Wunderli
first=Earl M
title=
contribution=Critique of a Limited Geography for Book of Mormon Events
volume=35
issue=3
pages=161-197
date=Fall 2002
year=2002
contribution-url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/dialogue&CISOPTR=29050&REC=15
accessdate=2007-01-23 .