Ma Chung-ying

Ma Chung-ying (Ma Zhongying _zh. 马仲英) (ca 1910 - 1936?), aka 'Big Horse' [Hedin, Sven, "The Flight of Big Horse", New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1936.] , was a Chinese Muslim, and Hui warlord of the Gansu province in China during the 1930s. After several victories over Chinese and White Russian forces, Ma Chung-ying attempted to expand his territory into southern Xinjiang by launching campaigns from his power base in Gansu, but was eventually defeated by Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai in 1934.

The rise of Ma Chung-ying

Jin Shuren (Chin Shu-jen) came to power shortly after the assassination of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) governor, Yang Zengxin (Yang Tseng-sin), in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of Muslims and Turkic peoples, and openly antagonized them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process, and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty.

In 1930, Jin annexed the Kumul Khanate, a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The newly-subjected Kumulliks' land was expropriated by the government and given to Chinese settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931, and many Chinese were massacred by the local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province.

The Uyghur leaders of the revolt appealed for help to Ma Chung-ying, a warlord in the Gansu province. Ma was a youthful, intelligent, charismatic and popular warlord, admired by his Tungan troops, and skilled at infantry and cavalry tactics. However, he was also cruel and brutal, and his troops were known as brigands and murderers [Hedin, Sven, "The Flight of Big Horse", New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1936.] .

Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to the government forces in the garrison there. Although he was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city and withdrew his forces back to Gansu after being wounded that October. This would temporarily leave the Xinjiang Muslims to fight Jin alone.

Although the Soviets were not directly involved in these events, it is interesting to note that the government forces included a number of White Russian troops who had taken refuge in Xinjiang after the Russian Civil War.

Ma Chung-ying's retreat seemed to indicate that Jin Shuren had successfully quelled the uprising at Kumul, but the tensions continued to brew below the surface. Rebels in the north continued to operate, albeit in a subdued fashion, and the potential for a full-scale revolt began to spread to other parts of Xinjiang. In particular, "rumors and reports from the rebellious north-east continued to flood into the oases of the Tarim Basin in southern Xinjiang, inflaming anti-Chinese feeling amongst an indigenous population already indignant at the imposition of increased taxes and forced issue of huge quantities of unbacked paper currency to pay for Jin Shuren's war effort"Fact|date=May 2008.

At the same time, Jin Shuren sought revenge on the Xinjiang Mongols for not helping him suppress the Kumul rebellion by murdering their regent and "Living Buddha," Tsetsen Puntsag Gegeen, in May 1932.

Soon after, in July, Jin Shuren's forces began joint operations with Soviet forces in the border regions to put down insurgency amongst the Kyrgyz.

Several months later, Ma Fu-ming, a Hui general formerly in the employment of the government, sided with the rebels still operating in the north of the province. As a result, the Muslim rebellion in the northeast centered in the Turfan Depression, midway between Urumchi and Kumul.

Isolated uprisings also began to occur in the south. With more and more of Jin Shuren's subjects alienated by his repressive measures, the stage was set for wide-spread rebellion.

Xinjiang during the 1930s

The insurgency that had been simmering in the northeast began to spread and gain momentum. During the winter of 1932–1933, beginning with the capture of key cities in the Turfan Depression, the rebels advanced southward to Kashgar, gradually bringing more area under their control and recruiting local residents to their forces.

At the same time, in the south, the Muslim population began to actively revolt against the government. Here, where Islam was more influential, the religious nature of the revolt came to the forefront.

Simultaneously, rebels approached Kashgar from both the north and the south roads. The city fell in May 1933, ending government control in the south of the province.

A power struggle soon emerged in the rebel forces between the Huis, Chinese-speaking Muslims under the leadership of Ma Chan-ts'ang, and the Turkic Muslims. At the same time, there were factions among the Turkic Muslims. Anarchy reigned throughout much of the area as different leaders attempted to seize power; bloodshed was widespread as rival groups fought each other, captured and executed their opponents, and ambushed and massacred each other's forces. Kashgar was initially controlled by the Uyghur Temur and the Kyrgyz Osman Ali, while in Khotan a self-styled Khotan Islamic government was set up under the Amir Muhammad Amin Bughra and his associates. In this environment, Hui control of the area waned and that of the Khotan Amirs grew. As a result of continuous fighting between the Huis, Kyrgyz, and Uyghurs, morale in Kashgar plummeted. Temur was killed, Osman Ali fled, and, in the political vacuum that was left, the Khotan Amirs emerged as the undisputed rulers in southern Xinjiang in October 1933.

While all this was happening in the south, other developments were taking place in the north. In particular, a new figure had emerged to play a key role in Xinjiang for most of the rest of the Republican era: Sheng Shicai. Sheng Shicai was a well-trained military man who had first come to Xinjiang during the winter of 1929–1930. Beginning his career as Chief of Staff of the Xinjiang Frontier Army, he was promoted in 1932 to Provincial Commander-in-Chief. An ambitious man, he did not have to wait long to move into a position of unqualified power in Xinjiang. His opportunity came with the re-emergence of the Huis in the province.

Despite the fact that Ma Chung-ying had withdrawn to Gansu, Hui forces loyal to him had remained in Xinjiang.

During the winter of 1932–1933 - at the same time that the Muslim rebels were moving towards Kashgar - these forces, under the leadership of Ma Shih-ming and supplemented by troops loyal to the defected government general Ma Fu-ming, began to advance on Urumchi. They reached the city, the gates of which had been closed in February 1933. Fierce fighting broke out, and the city was only saved by the valiant defense of the White Russian troops and the subsequent arrival of Sheng Shicai's forces. "The final death toll was probably in excess of 6,000 Chinese and Muslims"Fact|date=May 2008. The rebels withdrew to the surrounding countryside as Sheng's prestige grew.

Sheng Shicai's strength was further reinforced by the arrival in March of the Kuomintang's North-East National Salvation Army via the Soviet Union. The Soviets, concerned about the possible victory of the Muslims over Jin Shuren's weakened regime, were willing to accommodate the Chinese in this matter.

Meanwhile, Jin Shuren's corrupt and incompetent administration of Xinjiang had continued to alienate not only the native population, but also those he relied on for the maintenance of his power. The matter climaxed when the White Russians carried out a successful coup in April 1933, forcing him to flee over the Soviet border. "Sheng Shih-ts'ai, who protested that he was 'only a common soldier' (but who enjoyed the full backing of both the White Russians and the North-East National Salvation Army), was confirmed in the all-powerful position of Tupan or Border Defence Commissioner, as de facto ruler of the province"Fact|date=May 2008.

Ma Chung-ying returns

Ma Chung-ying reappeared after a period of convalescence in Gansu, where he amassed a large army through extensive conscription. He was also appointed as Commanding Officer of the 36th Division of the National Army of China by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed.

Ma had no intention of sharing power with anyone. He dreamed of forming a Muslim state under his absolute control [Hedin, Sven, "The Flight of Big Horse", New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1936.] . This "highly ambitious young warlord, who was to dream, in his wilder moments, of creating a Muslim empire which would include the whole of Soviet, as well as China, Central Asia" Fact|date=May 2008, began his march in May 1933.

Kumul was easily taken, as well as other towns en route to the provincial capital. Sheng Shicai's forces retreated to Urumchi. Ground was alternatively gained and lost by both sides. During this time, Ma's forces acquired notoriety for their cruelty to both the Turkic and Chinese inhabitants, destroying the economy and engaging in wholesale looting and burning of villages. Once seen as a liberator by the Turkic population, who had suffered greatly under Jin Shuren, many Turkic inhabitants of the region now ardently hoped for Ma's expulsion by Sheng Shicai, and an end to the seesaw military campaigns by both sides.

Throughout the conflict, it was uncertain which side had the backing of Nanjing, since both claimed allegiance to the Kuomintang. As did his predecessors, Sheng continued to employ large numbers of White Russian officers and troops, including Cossack cavalry forces, in support of his military campaigns.

Huang Mu-sung, native of Kumul and a "Pacification Commissioner" from the Republican government, soon arrived in Urumchi on an ostensible peace mission. Sheng Shicai suspected him of conspiring with some of his opponents to overthrow him. As a result, he executed three leaders of the provincial government, accusing them of plotting his overthrow with Huang. At the same time, Sheng Shicai also forced Huang to wire Nanjing with a recommendation that he be recognized as the official Tupan of Xinjiang.

Sheng Shicai's problems at this time were not all in the north, however. As Hui armies marched on Urumchi from both sides, Ma Zhongying's forces were joined by those of Chang P'ei-yüan, the military governor of Ili, and potentially more significant events were taking place in southern Xinjiang. The Khotan Amirs were not content to merely control most of the south; their eventual goal was the establishment of an independent Muslim state.

The Turkish-Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan

The Khotan Amirs had attempted to create their Islamic state first in September 1933, after wooing Khoja Niyas Hajji, a leader in the Kumul uprising who had initially agreed to recognize Sheng Shicai's administration, with the offer of presidency of the "Republic of Eastern Turkestan." However, this republic was a state in name only, and Khoja was reported to be negotiating with the Soviets, an unacceptable proposition for the Amirs. In November of the same year they declared the establishment of the "Turkish-Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan" (TIRET). "The domestic policy of the TIRET was ... directed towards the establishment of a radical Islamic system, based on the Shari'a (Islamic law) but encompassing certain educational, economic and social reforms, whilst its foreign policy was as staunchly anti-Soviet as it was anti-Hui and anti-Han"Fact|date=May 2008.

The government was led by the Amirs, with Khoja Niyas Hajji as titular President, and the capital was at Kashgar. Their authority extended over the southern third of the province, and they soon had all the trappings of a legitimate government, including a National Assembly, a legal system, a constitution, a flag, and a national currency. However, there is no indication that Ma Chung-ying was at any time seriously interested in ceding any power to the Islamic government. All areas controlled by Ma's forces remained under military jurisdiction and subject to Ma's authority alone [Hedin, Sven, "The Flight of Big Horse", New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1936.] .

The attempt to establish a lasting Islamic government in the area was to prove a failure. Neither Britain nor potential allies in the Muslim world, including Turkey and Afghanistan, were prepared to recognize or support the fledgling republic. Furthermore, "having adopted an uncompromisingly 'Turkic-Islamic' stance, it had deprived itself of effective allies whilst ensuring the enmity of the three most powerful forces in Xinjiang - the Huis, the provincial authorities, and the Soviet Union"Fact|date=May 2008. It was this last force, whose influence had been limited up to this time, which was now to step firmly into Xinjiang politics.

The TIRET, if allowed to survive, could have provided a base of operations for pan-Turkic and pan-Islamic sentiments to spread into Soviet Central Asia. There were also reports of contacts between TIRET officials and representatives of Japan and Nazi Germany.

At the same time, there were fears that Ma Chung-ying, a Muslim and ardently anti-Soviet, could be used by the Japanese to set up a puppet regime in Xinjiang, as they had done with "Manchukuo."

Ma's Downfall

In January 1934, Soviet troops crossed the border and attacked rebel positions in the Ili area. Chang P'ei-yüan's forces were defeated, and the governor committed suicide. Despite valiant resistance, Ma Chung-ying's troops were no match for the superior Soviet military machine's aerial bombing, and were pushed back from Urumchi. Soviet assistance created the curious situation of White Russian and Soviet military forces acting in cooperation in a temporary alliance against Ma.

In the south, Khoja Niyas Hajji was wooed away from the TIRET leadership by a Soviet offer of arms. On March 11, 1934, Ma's forces captured a mapping expedition sponsored by the German and Chinese Nationalist governments, and led by the famous Swedish explorer Sven Hedin. Hedin was nearly executed by one of Ma's lieutenants after refusing to hand over the expedition's vehicles. After giving into the lieutenant's demands at gunpoint, Hedin's vehicles were taken and his drivers briefly impressed into service for Ma's fleeing troops before their relief by Sheng's forces and allied Soviet and Cossack troops [Hedin, Sven, "The Flight of Big Horse", New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1936.] .

Having been unable to capture Urumchi, Ma Chung-ying now turned south toward Kashgar. In February, "in a development which emphasized the deeply conflicting interests of Turkic-speaking and Chinese-speaking Muslims in southern Xinjiang, the capital of the secessionist TIRET was recaptured for Nanjing not by the provincial forces of Sheng Shih-ts'ai, but by the Hui forces of Ma Chung-ying"Fact|date=May 2008.

At the same time, Khoja Niyas Hajji was negotiating with the Soviets to dissolve the TIRET, in return for the post of "Civil Governor for Life" under Sheng's administration.

Fighting between the Huis and the forces loyal to the Khotan Amirs continued for the next several months, and by July 1934, all of the TIRET leaders had been either killed in battle, hanged or had fled to British India. Ma Chung-ying, now firmly in control of Kashgar, denounced Sheng Shicai as a Soviet puppet and reaffirmed his allegiance to the Kuomintang government.

However, Ma Chung-ying's forces had become completely isolated in southern Sinkiang. Sabit Damulla, Prime-Minister of TIRET, rejected all Ma's offers to algin with him against Khoja Niyaz Haji. Ma Chung-ying's bid for British support also fell on deaf ears and, in a surprising move, he turned to the Soviets for aid.

Suddenly, having attacked British Consulate, Ma started negotiations with the Soviet Consul-General in Kashgar, Maks Dumpis, who urged him to seek asylum in Soviet territory. Ma agreed, and on July 5, 1934, escorted by Soviet consular official M. Constantinoff, Ma crossed over the Soviet frontier near Irkeshtam. He brought with him, his adjutants and secretaries, some 30 men, and 40 camels, loaded with booty and gifts to Stalin. He left his army to the care of his uncle Ma Hushan, promising he would soon return to Xinjiang (Sinkiang). He was believed to have been taken to Moscow as, "a respectful guest of the Soviet Union," where most accounts hold he was liquidated by Stalin in 1936 or 1937 [Hedin, Sven, "The Flight of Big Horse", New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1936.] .

Aftermath

In the power vacuum created by the collapse of the TIRET and Ma's departure, provincial forces loyal to Sheng Shicai were able to recapture Kashgar in a few weeks. In September 1934, a truce was signed between the Hui forces and the provincial authorities. In 1936, Zhang Guotao's forces crossed the Yellow River in attempt to expand the communist base into Xinjiang and make a direct connection with the former USSR. Some sources allege that Ma Chung-ying enlisted in the Red Army and became a high-ranking special adviser to the proposed Soviet force that was planning to take action according to Zhang Guotao's forces. Ma Chung-ying's tasks were, reportedly, to advise Soviets on the situation in Xinjiang and to help the Soviets negotiate with his cousins Ma Bufang, Ma Hongbin, and their families so that these warlords would not hinder Zhang Guotao's forces. However, the Soviet plan did not materialize because Zhang Guotao's communist force was met, in accordance with the order of Chiang Kai-shek, and rapidly annihilated by the united 100,000-soldier Ma clique Kuomintang Army (Ma Bufang forces from Qinghai, a remnant of Ma Chung-ying forces from Gansu, and Ma Hongkui and Ma Hongbin forces from Ningxia). Zhang Guotao's considerable 21,600-soldier Fourth Red Army force (in comparison with 8,000-soldier First Red Army force, led by Mao Zedong) collapsed much faster than the Soviets had expected, and not one of Chinese communist soldiers reached Sinkiang alive.

Nothing more was heard from Ma Chung-ying after 1936. There are at least five different versions of Ma's end by various sources:
*Ma was killed in a crash prior to World War II.
*Ma was executed after being taken to Moscow in 1936.
*Ma was imprisoned at a labor camp and later executed during the Great Purge of Army in 1937–1938.
*Some writers, such as Konstantin Rokossovsky, allege that Ma was first arrested during the Great Purge but was later released and participated in the Great Patriotic War.
*According to Sheng Shicai's memoir, "Red Failure in Sinkiang," (Michigan University Press, 1958) Ma was killed by Stalin, together with all his staff, in Moscow during the summer or spring of 1937.

References

* Hedin, Sven, "The Flight of Big Horse", New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1936.
* "The Soviets in Xinjiang (1911-1949) " by Mark Dickens. USA, 1990 year
* "Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot? " by Allen S. Whiting and Sheng Shih- Ts'ai. Michigan State University Press, USA, 1958 year

Links

* [http://crwflags.com/fotw/flags/cn-islam.html Flags of Independence]
* [http://oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm The Soviets in Xinjiang (1911-1949) by Mark Dickens]