- Bertrand's theorem
In
classical mechanics , Bertrand's theorem [cite journal | author = Bertrand J | year = 1873 | title = Théorème relatif au mouvement d'un point attiré vers un centre fixe.| journal = C. R. Acad. Sci.| volume = 77 | pages = 849–853] states that only two types ofpotential s produce stable, closed orbits: an inverse-squarecentral force such as the gravitational or electrostatic potential:V(mathbf{r}) = frac{-k}{r}
and the radial harmonic oscillator potential
:V(mathbf{r}) = frac{1}{2} kr^{2}
General preliminaries
All attractive
central force s can produce circular orbits, which are naturally closed orbits. The only requirement is that the central force exactly equals the centripetal force requirement, which determines the required angular velocity for a given circular radius. Non-central forces (i.e., those that depend on the angular variables as well as the radius) are ignored here, since they do not produce circular orbits in general.The equation of motion for the radius r of a particle of mass m moving in a central potential V(r) is given by Lagrange's equations
:mfrac{d^{2}r}{dt^{2 - mr omega^{2} = mfrac{d^{2}r}{dt^{2 - frac{L^{2{mr^{3 = -frac{dV}{dr}
where omega equiv frac{d heta}{dt} and the
angular momentum L = mr^{2}omega is conserved. For illustration, the first term on the left-hand side is zero for circular orbits, and the applied inwards force frac{dV}{dr} equals the centripetal force requirement mr omega^{2}, as expected.The definition of
angular momentum allows a change of independent variable from t to heta:frac{d}{dt} = frac{L}{mr^{2 frac{d}{d heta}
giving the new equation of motion that is independent of time
:frac{L}{r^{2 frac{d}{d heta} left( frac{L}{mr^{2 frac{dr}{d heta} ight)- frac{L^{2{mr^{3 = -frac{dV}{dr}
This equation becomes quasilinear on making the change of variables u equiv frac{1}{r} and multiplying both sides by frac{mr^{2{L^{2
:frac{d^{2}u}{d heta^{2 + u = -frac{m}{L^{2 frac{d}{du} V(1/u)
Bertrand's theorem
As noted above, all
central force s can produce circular orbits given an appropriate initial velocity. However, if some radial velocity is introduced, these orbits need not be stable (i.e., remain in orbit indefinitely) nor closed (repeatedly returning to exactly the same path). Here we show that stable, exactly closed orbits can be produced only with an inverse-square force or radial harmonic oscillator potential (a "necessary condition"). In the following sections, we show that those force laws do produce stable, exactly closed orbits (a "sufficient condition").For brevity, we introduce the function J(u) into the equation for u
:frac{d^{2}u}{d heta^{2 + u = J(u) equiv -frac{m}{L^{2 frac{d}{du} V(1/u) = -frac{m}{L^{2}u^{2 f(1/u)
where f represents the radial force. The criterion for perfectly circular motion at a radius r_{0} is that the first term on the left-hand side be zero
:u_{0} = J(u_{0})
where u_{0} equiv 1/r_{0}.
The next step is to consider the equation for u under "small perturbations" eta equiv u - u_{0} from perfectly circular orbits. On the right-hand side, the J function can be expanded in a standard
Taylor series :J(u) approx u_{0} + eta J^{prime}(u_{0}) + frac{1}{2} eta^{2} J^{primeprime}(u_{0}) + frac{1}{6} eta^{3} J^{primeprimeprime}(u_{0}) + ldots
Substituting this expansion into the equation for u and subtracting the constant terms yields
:frac{d^{2}eta}{d heta^{2 + eta = eta J^{prime}(u_{0}) + frac{1}{2} eta^{2} J^{primeprime}(u_{0}) + frac{1}{6} eta^{3} J^{primeprimeprime}(u_{0}) ldots
which can be written as
:frac{d^{2}eta}{d heta^{2 + eta^{2} eta = frac{1}{2} eta^{2} J^{primeprime}(u_{0}) + frac{1}{6} eta^{3} J^{primeprimeprime}(u_{0}) ldots
where eta^{2} equiv 1 - J^{prime}(u_{0}) is a constant. eta^{2} must be non-negative; otherwise, the radius of the orbit would vary exponentially away from its initial radius. (The solution eta=0 corresponds to a perfectly circular orbit.) If the right-hand side may be neglected (i.e., for "very" small perturbations), the solutions are
:eta( heta) = h_{1} cos eta heta
where the amplitude h_{1} is a constant of integration. For the orbits to be closed, eta must be a
rational number . What's more, it must be the "same" rational number for all radii, since eta cannot change continuously; therational number s are totally disconnected from one another. Since the defining equations:J^{prime}(u_{0}) equiv -2 + frac{u_{0{f(1/u_{0})} frac{df}{du} = 1 - eta^{2} must hold for any value of u_{0}, we can write
:frac{df}{dr} = left( eta^{2} - 3 ight) frac{f}{r}
which implies that the force must follow a
power law :f(r) = - frac{k}{r^{3-eta^{2}
Hence, J must have the general form
:J(u) = frac{mk}{L^{2 u^{1-eta^{2
For more general deviations from circularity (i.e., when we cannot neglect the higher order terms in the Taylor expansion of J), eta may be expanded in a Fourier series, e.g.,
:eta( heta) = h_{0} + h_{1} cos eta heta + h_{2} cos 2eta heta + h_{3} cos 3eta heta + ldots
Substituting this solution into both sides of the equation for eta and equating the coefficients belonging to the same frequency yields the system of equations
:h_{0} = h_{1}^{2} frac{J^{primeprime}(u_{0})}{4eta^{2
:h_{2} = -h_{1}^{2} frac{J^{primeprime}(u_{0})}{12eta^{2
:h_{3} = -frac{1}{8eta^{3 left [ h_{1}h_{2} frac{J^{primeprime}(u_{0})}{2} +h_{1}^{3} frac{J^{primeprimeprime}(u_{0})}{24} ight]
and, most importantly,
:left( 2 h_{1} h_{0} + h_{1} h_{2} ight) frac{J^{primeprime}(u_{0})}{2} + h_{1}^{3} frac{J^{primeprimeprime}(u_{0})}{8} = 0
This last equation, when combined with the equation for J in terms of eta, yields the main result of Bertrand's theorem
:eta^{2} left( 1 - eta^{2} ight) left( 4 - eta^{2} ight) = 0
Hence, the only
potential s that can produce stable, closed, non-circular orbits are the inverse-square force law (eta = 1) and the radial harmonic oscillator potential (eta = 2). The solution eta = 0 corresponds to perfectly circular orbits, as noted above.Inverse-square force (Kepler problem)
For an inverse-square force law such as the gravitational or electrostatic potential, the
potential can be written:V(mathbf{r}) = frac{-k}{r} = -ku The orbit u( heta) can be derived from the general equation
:frac{d^{2}u}{d heta^{2 + u = -frac{m}{L^{2 frac{d}{du} V(1/u) = frac{km}{L^{2
whose solution is the constant frac{km}{L^{2 plus a simple sinusoid
:u equiv frac{1}{r} = frac{km}{L^{2 left [ 1 + e cos left( heta - heta_{0} ight) ight]
where e (the eccentricity) and heta_{0} (the phase offset) are constants of integration.
This is the general formula for a
conic section that has one focus at the origin; e=0 corresponds to acircle , e<1 corresponds to an ellipse, e=1 corresponds to aparabola , and e>1 corresponds to ahyperbola . The eccentricity e is related to the totalenergy E (cf. theLaplace-Runge-Lenz vector ):e = sqrt{1 + frac{2EL^{2{k^{2}m
Comparing these formulae shows that E<0 corresponds to an ellipse, E=0 corresponds to a
parabola , and E>0 corresponds to ahyperbola . In particular, E=-frac{k^{2}m}{2L^{2 for perfectly circular orbits.Radial harmonic oscillator
To solve for the orbit under a radial harmonic oscillator potential, it's easier to work in components mathbf{r} = (x, y, z). The potential energy can be written
:V(mathbf{r}) = frac{1}{2} kr^{2} = frac{1}{2} k left( x^{2} + y^{2} + z^{2} ight)
The equation of motion for a particle of mass m is given by three independent Lagrange's equations
:frac{d^{2}x}{dt^{2 + omega_{0}^{2} x = 0
:frac{d^{2}y}{dt^{2 + omega_{0}^{2} y = 0
:frac{d^{2}z}{dt^{2 + omega_{0}^{2} z = 0
where the constant omega_{0}^{2} equiv frac{k}{m} must be positive (i.e., k>0) to ensure bounded, closed orbits; otherwise, the particle will fly off to
infinity . The solutions of thesesimple harmonic oscillator equations are all similar:x = A_{x} cos left(omega_{0} t + phi_{x} ight)
:y = A_{y} cos left(omega_{0} t + phi_{y} ight)
:z = A_{z} cos left(omega_{0} t + phi_{z} ight)
where the positive constants A_{x}, A_{y} and A_{z} represent the amplitudes of the oscillations and the angles phi_{x}, phi_{y} and phi_{z} represent their phases. The resulting orbit mathbf{r}(t) = left [ x(t), y(y), z(t) ight] is closed because it repeats exactly after a period
:T equiv frac{2pi}{omega_{0
The system is also stable because small perturbations in the amplitudes and phases cause correspondingly small changes in the overall orbit.
References
Further reading
* Goldstein H. (1980) "Classical Mechanics", 2nd. ed., Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02918-9
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