France–United Kingdom relations

Articleissues
unreferenced = March 2008
expand =January 2008

Anglo-French relations describes relations between the governments of the French Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK). The designation "anglo" specifically refers to England, not the UK, however, modern intergovernmental relations between these two nations are habitually called Anglo-French relations, and understood to refer to the UK and not England. The term Franco-British relations is also used.

Early Franco-British interactions occurred before Caesar's invasion of Gaul, when the two regions were inhabited by loosely trading Celts fighting the Romans as a common enemy. They continued under the Roman Empirendash as both modern day states were ruled from Rome. Both were provinces in the larger Roman Empire.

Recently relations have been cordial and cooperative, with an edge of wariness on both sides, due to historical differences, and more recent disagreements between two of the leaders of the two countries; former French President Jacques Chirac and former British Prime Minister Tony Blair. French author Jose-Alain Fralon characterized the relationship between the countries by describing the British as "our most dear enemies". This has changed somewhat since the election of Nicolas Sarkozy as President of France.

Much of the histories of the two countries have been defined by the relationship between the two countries.

History

Roman Era

When Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, he encountered allies of the Gauls and Belgae from South-Eastern Britain offering assistance, some of whom even acknowledged the king of the Belgae as their sovereign.

Although all peoples concerned were Celts, and the Angles and Franks had not yet invaded either country that would later bear their names, this could arguably be seen as the first major example of Anglo-French cooperation in recorded history. As a consequence, Caesar felt compelled to invade and subdue Britain.

Norman Times to the Hundred Years War

For the next millenium, there was little interaction between the two regions, as both Britain and France were invaded by different Germanic tribes. At the turn of the second millennium, however, Britain was primarily involved with the Scandinavian world, and France's main foreign relationship was with the Holy Roman Empire. However, in the mid-eleventh century there was a dispute over the English throne, and the Normans, of Viking stock and French culture, conquered England under William I ('The Conqueror'). The far more advanced Norman feudal culture took root in England, and for the next 150 years England was ruled from France and the language of the aristocracy was French. To this day the coat of arms of the United Kingdom reads 'Dieu et mon Droit' ('God and my right'). The first Norman kings were also the dukes of Normandy, so relations were somewhat complicated between the countries. Though they were dukes ostensibly under the king of France, their higher level of organisation in Normandy gave them more de facto power. In addition, they were kings of England in their own right; England was not officially a province of France, nor even, officially at least, a province of Normandy. During the reign of the closely related Plantagenet dynasty, which was based in its Angevin empire, half of France was under Angevin control as well as all of England. However, almost all of the Angevin empire was lost to Philip I of France under Richard I Lionheart, John and Henry II of England. This finally gave the English a separate identity as an Anglo-Saxon people under a Francophone, but not French, crown. While the English and French had been frequently acrimonious, they had always had a common culture and little fundamental difference in identity. Nationalism had been minimal in days when most wars took place between rival feudal lords on a sub-national scale. The last attempt to unite the two cultures under such lines was probably a failed French-supported rebellion to depose Edward II.

The Hundred Years War

The English monarchy finally moved to England and turned to the English language wholeheartedly during the so-called Hundred Years War (1337-1453). Though the war was in principle a mere dispute over territory, it changed societies on both sides of the Channel hugely. The English, though already politically united, found pride in their language and identity for the first time, and the French united politically. Several of the most famous Anglo-French battles took place in the Hundred Years War: Crécy, Poitiers, Agincourt, Orleans, and Paris. Major sources of French pride stemmed from their leadership during the war. Guesclin was a brilliant tactician who forced the English out of the lands they had procured at the Treaty of Bretigny, a compromising treaty that most Frenchmen saw as a humiliation. Joan d'Arc was another unifying figure who to this day represents a combination of religious fervour and French patriotism to all France. After her inspirational victory at Orleans and what many saw as her martyrdom at the hands of treacherous Burgundians and Englishmen, Dunois eventually forced the English out of all of France except Calais, which was only lost in 1558. Apart from setting national identities, the Hundred Years War is often cited as the root of the traditional rivalry and at times hatred between the two countries.

During the era, the English lost their last territories in France, except Calais, through the English monarchs continued to style themseles as Kings of France until 1800.

The Franco-Scots Alliance

France and Scotland agreed to defend each other in the event of an attack on either from England in several treaties, the most notable of which were in 1327 and 1490. This was used to great effect in revolutionary and Stuart times, when the Scottish royal household, which also ruled England, was deposed. This led many Scots to anger with their former English allies, and Stuarts found sanctuary in both France and Scotland. There had always been intermarriage between the Scottish and French royal households, but this solidified the bond between the royals even further.

The Early Modern Period

The English and French were engaged in numerous wars in the following centuries. They took opposite sides in all of the Italian Wars (1511-1559).

An even deeper division set in during the Reformation, when most of England converted to Protestantism and France remained Roman Catholic. This enabled each side to see the other as not only a foreign evil but also a heretical one. In both countries there was intense civil religous conflict. During the oppression of the Roman Catholic Louis XIII, many Protestant Huguenots fled to England. Similarly, many Catholics in England fled England to France.

Henry VIII had initially sought an alliance with France, and the Field of the Cloth of Gold saw a face to face meeting between him and the French King, Francis I.

Universal Monarchy

When Spain had been the dominant world power in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the English had often sided with France as a counterweight against them. [Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire. Simms, Brendan p.9-29] It was intended to keep a European balance of power, and prevent one country gaining overwhelming supremacy. Key to English strategy, was the fear that a Universal Monarchy of Europe would be able to overwhelm the British Isles. [Simms p.11-25]

Following the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, as Spain's power weakened, France began to take on a more assertive role under the 'Sun King' Louis XIV with an expansionist policy both in Europe and across the globe. English foreign policy was now directed towards preventing France gaining supremacy on the continent and creating a Universal Monarchy. To the French, England was an isolated and piratical nation heavily reliant on naval power, and particularly privateers which they referred to as Perfidious Albion.

There was a sharp diversion in political philosiphies in two two states. In England a king, Charles I, had been executed during the English Civil War for exceeding his powers, and another James II had been overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. In France the power of the monarchs and their advisors, went largely unchecked.

England and France fought each other in the War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697), which set the pattern for relations between the France and Great Britain during the eighteenth century. Wars were fought intermittently, with each nation part of a constantly shifting pattern of alliances known as the stately quadrille.

Formation of Great Britain

Partly out of fear of a continental intervention the Act of Union was passed, that created the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, formally merging England, Scotland and Wales. [Simms p.51-3] While Britain grew increasingly democratic, France continued its system of absolute monarchy.

The newly united Britain fought France in the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713), the War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718-1720) and the War of the Austrian Succession (1742-1728), attempting to maintain the balance of power in Europe. The British maintained a small land army, so Britain always acted on the continent in alliance with other states such as Prussia and Austria as they were uanble to fight France alone. Equally France, lacking a superior navy, was unable to launch a successful invasion of Britain.

monarchs.

As the century wore on, there was a distinct passage of power to Britain and France, at the expense of traditional major powers such as Portugal, Spain and the Dutch Republic. Some observors saw the frequent conflicts between the two states during the eighteenth century as a battle for control of Europe, through most of these wars ended without a conclusive victory for either side.

Overseas expansion

From the 1650s, the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers. The Western Design of Oliver Cromwell intended to build up an increasing British presence in North America, beginning with the acquisition of Jamaica in 1652. [Simms p.29] The first British settlement on continental North America was founded in 1603, by the 1760s these had grown into thirteen separate colonies.

The French had settled the province of Canada to the North, and controlled Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, the wealthiest colony in the world. [Horne p.144] Both countries, recognising the potential of India, established trading posts there. Wars between the two states increasingly took place in these other continents, as well as Europe.

even Years War

The French and British fought each other and made treaties with Native American tribes to gain control of North America. Both nations coveted the Ohio Territory and in 1753 a British expedition there led by George Washington clashed with a French force. Shortly afterwards the French and Indian War broke out, initially taking place only in North America but in 1756 becoming part of the wider Seven Years War in which Britain and France were part of opposing coalitions.

The war was described by Winston Churchill as the first "world war", because fighting took place on several different continents. In 1759 the British enjoyed victories over the French in Europe, Canada and India severely weakening the French position around the world. [1759 :The Year Britain Became Master of the World. McLynn, Frank. (2005)] In 1762 the British captured the cities of Manila and Havana from Spain, France's strongest ally, which led ultimately to a peace settlement the following year that saw a large number of territories come under British control.

The Seven Years War is regarded as a critical moment in the history of Anglo-French relations, which laid the foundations for the dominance of the Anglosphere during the next two and a half centuries, and arguably the spread of democracy and English common law. [McLynn p.1]

American War of Independence

The Anglo-American settlers had originally fought on the side of the British, but as some Americans grew dissatisfied with British policies the French saw an opportunity to undermine British overseas power. When the American War of Independence broke out in 1775, the French began sending covert supplies and intelligence to the American rebels. [Harvey p.247]

In 1778 France, hoping to capitalise on the British defeat at Saratoga and fearing a rapprochement between the British and the Americans, entered the war [Harvey p362-63] and in 1779 persuaded their Spanish allies to do likewise. [Harvey p.393] France despatched troops to fight alongside the American rebels, and besieged Gibraltar with Spain. Plans were drawn up, but never put into practive, to launch an invasion of England.

In 1783 the French-led alliance managed to gain a number of concessions out of the British at the Treaty of Paris most notably the recognition of American independence. For a brief period after the war, Britain's naval power was subdued by an alliance between France and Spain. [Rodgers p.361]

The crippling debts incurred by France during the war, and the cost of rebuilding the French navy during the 1780s caused a financial crisis, leading directly to the French Revolution of 1789. [Rodgers p.362-3] The loss of the colonies was taken by some, such as the Emperor Joseph II of Austria, to mark the end of Britain as a major power. [Rodgers p.358]

The French Revolution

During the French Revolution, the anti-monarchical ideals of France were regarded with alarm throughout Europe. While France was plunged into chaos, Britain took advantage of its temporary weakness to build up its naval forces. The Revolution was initially popular with many Britons, both because it appeared to weaken France and was perceived to be based on British liberal ideals. This began to change as the Jacobin faction took over, and began the Terror.

The French were intent on spreading their revolutionary republicanism to other European states, including Britain. The British initially stayed out of the alliances of European states which unsuccessfully attacked France trying to restore the monarchy. In France a new, strong nationalism took hold enabling them to mobilise large and motivated forces.

Following the execution of the French King Louis XVII in 1793, Britain declared war in France. Except for a brief pause in the fighting in 1803, the war lasted continuously for twenty one years. During this time Britain raised several coalitions against the French, continually subsidising other European states with the Golden Cavalry of St George, enabling them to put large armies in the field. In spite of this, the French armies were very successful on land, creating several satellite states such as the Batavian Republic, and the British devoted much of their own forces to campaigns against the French in the Caribbean, with mixed results.

[
thumb|left|140px|French_forces_landed_in_Ireland_to_support_Irish_rebels_during_the_Irish rebellion of 1798]

In 1798 French forces invaded Ireland, where they were defeated by British and Irish forces. The fear of further attempts to create a French satellite in Ireland, led to the Act of Union merging of the crowns of Great Britain and Ireland to create the United Kingdom in 1800

The Napoleonic Wars

In 1801 Napoleon I came to power in France, ending the revolutionary era and creating a dictatorship. After he had triumphed on the European continent against the major European powers, Napoleon contemplated an invasion of the British mainland, but was dissuaded by the strength of British seapower, especially after the British victory at Trafalgar in 1805.

In response Napoleon established a continental system by which no nation was permitted to trade with the British. Napoleon hoped the embargo would isolate the British Isles severely weakening them, but a number of countries continued to trade with them in defiance of the policy.

In 1808 French forces invaded Portugal trying to attempt to halt trade with Great Britain, turning Spain into a satellite state in the process. [Esdaile p.1-36] The British responded by despatching a force under Sir Arthur Wellesley which captured Lisbon. [Esdaile p.87-108] Napoleon despatched increasing forces into the Iberian Peninsular, which became the key battleground between the two nations. Allied with Spanish and Portuguese forces, the British inflicted a number of defeats on the French during the Peninsular War which led Napoleon to brand it the "Spanish Ulcer". Allied to an increasingly resurgent European coalition, the British invaded southern France forcing Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile on Elba in 1814. [Esdaile p503-6]

After escaping and briefly threatening to resore the French Empire, Napoleon was defeated by a combined Anglo-German-Dutch force at Battle of Waterloo. With strong British support, the Bourbon monarchy was restored and Louis XVIII was crowned King. The Napoleonic era was the last occasion on which Britain and France went to war with each other, but by no means marked the end of the rivalry between the two nations.

Napoleon continues to be regarded as a national hero figure in France. After Napoleon's death, the English stereotype of the unfriendly, disdainful, bitter Frenchman and the French stereotype of the unfriendly, dishevelled, perfidious Englishman became very deep-set.Fact|date=September 2008

Early Nineteenth Century

Despite having entered the Napoleonic era regarded by many as a spent force, Britain had emerged from the 1815 Congress of Vienna as one of the leading financial, military and cultural powers of the world. France also recovered from the defeat at Waterloo to quickly retake its position on the world stage.

After such a bitter start, the British and French eventually became strained political allies, though they continued to be rivals when extending their empires. They frequently made stereotypical jokes about each other, and even side by side in war were critical of each other's tactics. According to one story, Chauvin once said to Lord Palmerston 'If I were not French, I would wish to be English', to which Lord Palmerston replied, 'If I were not English, I would wish to be English.' According to another, upon seeing the disastrous British Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War against Russia, French marshal Pierre Bosquet said 'C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre.' ('It's magnificent, but it's not war.') Eventually, relations settled down as the two empires tried to consolidate themselves rather than extend themselves.

Second French Empire

Napoleon III came to power in France in 1848, soon restoring the position of Emperor which had been vacant since his uncle Napoleon I. The new Emperor had an expansionist foreign policy, which saw the French establish colonies in Algeria and Indo-China. The British were initially alarmed, and commissioned a series of forts in southern England designed to resist a French invasion.

Despite this Napoleon had a very pro-British foreign policy, and was eager not to displease the British government whose friendship he saw as important to France.

The expanding Russia and the prospect of a United Germany became greater concerns to the British, and the two nations worked together during the Crimean War which aimed to curb Russia's expansion westwards. The two nations also co-operated during the Second Opium War, despatching a joint force to the Chinese capital Peking to agree a treaty with the Chinese Emperor.

.During the American Civil War both nations remained neutral. France came close to entering on the side of the Confederates, but did not want to become involved without the support of the British, which was not forthcoming due to concerns over slavery. France also attempted to gain British support for a scheme to put an Austrian Prince Maximilian I on the throne of Mexico, but the British were not willing to support any action other than the collection of debts owed by the Mexicans. This forced to French to act alone in the French Intervention in Mexico, which ultimately proved disatrous.

When Napoleon was overthrown in 1871, he fled to take refuge in England where he and his family lived in exile. The Republic which replaced his rule continued the warm relations with Britain, especially following the creation of the German Empire, which they perceived as a serious threat.

Later Victorian Era

One brief dispute occured during the Fashoda Incident when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. [Urban p.194-5] Under heavy pressure the French withdrew securing Anglo-Egptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morroco. [Turner p.]

During the Scramble for Africa the British and French generally recognised each other sphere's of influence. The Suez Canal initially built by the French became a joint British-French project, as both saw it as vital to mantaining their influence and empires in Asia.

The Entente Cordiale

From about 1900, Francophiles in Britain and Anglophiles in France began to spread a study and mutual respect and love of the culture of the country on the other side of the English Channel. Francophile and Anglophile societies developed, further introducing Britain to French food and wine, and France to English sports like rugby. French and English were already the second languages of choice in Britain and France respectively. Eventually this developed into a political policy as the new united Germany was seen as a potential threat. Louis Blériot, for example, crossed the Channel in an aeroplane in 1909. Many saw this as symbolic of the connection between the two countries. This period in the first decade of the 20th century became known as the Entente Cordiale, and continued in spirit until the 1940s. Up to the 1920s, relations between Britain and France were arguably closer than those between Britain and the United States.

First World War

Between 1914 and 1918 the British and French were allies against the Central Powers after France and Belgium had been invaded by the German army.

There was strong co-operation between the British and French forces. This took place on several different fronts including at Gallipoli, but most particularly in the trenches in France against the Germans. After four years of heavy fighting the allies eventually emerged victorious.

Treaty of Versailles

Following the war, at the Treaty of Versailles the British and French worked closely together, as their interests were largely similar. Both countries were interested in creating a weakened Germany, as opposed to a more moderate American position. Both were also keen to protect and expand their empires, in the face of calls for self-determination. On a visit to London, French leader Georges Clemenceau was hailed by the British crowds. Lloyd George was given a similar reception in Paris.

Both states joined the League of Nations, and both signed agreements of defence of several countries, most importantly Poland. The Treaty of Sevres split the Middle East between the two states, in the form of Mandates. However the outlook of the nations were different during the inter-war years, while France saw itself inherently as a European power, Britain enjoyed close relationships with Australia, Canada and New Zealand and at one time flirted with the idea of Empire Free Trade, a form of protectionism that would have seen large tarrifs placed on goods from France.

econd World War

In the years leading up to World War II, both countries followed a similar diplomatic path of appeasement of Germany in Czechoslovakia, despite a French military excursion there. As Nazi intentions became clear, France pushed for a harder line but the British demurred believing diplomacy could solve the disputes.

After guaranteeing the independence of Poland, both declared war on Germany on the same day, 3 September, 1939 after the Germans ignored an ultimatum to withdraw from the country.When Germany began its attack on France in 1940, British troops and French troops again fought side by side. Eventually, after the Germans came through the Ardennes, it became clear that France would not be able to fend off the German attack, and Churchill pledged to France that Britain would continue to fight for France's freedom, even if it must do so alone. The final bond between the two nations was so strong that members of the British cabinet had proposed a temporary union of the two countries for the sake of morale. This proposal was turned down, and shortly afterwards France fell to the Germans. The Free French resistance, led by Charles de Gaulle, were sheltered in London.

In southern France a collaborative government known as Vichy France was set up, allied to the Nazis. The British were at war with the Vichy state, destroying its navy and moving into colonies such as Senegal on behalf of the Free French government.

Following D-Day, relations between the two peoples were at a high, as the British were greeted as liberators. As a gesture of courtesy French forces were allowed to be the first to march into Paris in 1944. Following the victory over Germany in 1945, Britain and France became close as both feared the Americans would withdraw from Europe leaving them vulnerable to the communist Soviet Union. Britain stongly advocated that France be given a zone of occupied Germany. Both states were amongst the five Permanent Members of the new UN Security Council, where they commonly collaborated.

Suez Crisis

In 1956 the Suez Canal, previously owned by an Anglo-French company, was nationalised by the Egyptian government. The British and the French were both strongly committed to taking the canal back by force. [Turner p.186] Both the British and French governments saw the Egyptian dictator Nasser as another Hitler, and were determined to act to prevent a repeat of the events leading up to the Second World War. During the initial stages of the crisis, the French Prime Minister proposed a union between Britain and France, but the British were less enthusiastic. Anthony Eden called it a "good idea in substance" but thought it "a bit premature". [Turner p.187]

The Americans, while opposed to Nasser, refused to become involved with what many regarded as European colonialism putting severe strain on the Anglo-American special relationship. The relations between Britain and France were not entirely harmonious, as the French kept the British in the dark about the involvement of Israel until very close to the commencement of military operations. [Turner p.267]

Common market

The Suez Crisis was probably the last time that Anglo-French relations have been more comfortable than Anglo-American relations.Immediately after the crisis Anglo-French relations started to sour again, and they have never again reached the peak they did in the years between 1900 and 1940.

In an attempt to strengthen the bond further, France applied to join the Commonwealth, but was turned down by Anthony Eden's government on the grounds that they had never been part of the British Empire.

Shortly after this, France, Germany, Italy and the Benelux counrties formed what would become the European Economic Community and later the European Union, and did not at first allow Britain to join. De Gaulle's attempts to exclude the British from European affairs during the beginning of France's Fifth Republic are now seen by many in Britain to be a betrayal of the bond between the countries, and Anthony Eden's exclusion of France from the commonwealth is seen in a similar light in France. The French partly feared that were the British to join the Common Market they would attempt to dominate it.

Over the years, Britain and France have often taken diverging courses within the European Community. British policy has favoured an expansion of the Community and free trade while France has advocated protectionism and restricting membership of the Community to a core of West European states.

De Gaulle

In 1958 with France mired in a seemingly unwinnable war in Algeria, Charles de Gaulle the wartime leader of the Free French returned to power in France. He created the Fifth French Republic, ending the post-war parliamentary system and replacing it with a strong Presidency, which became dominated by his followers - the Gaullists.

De Gaulle made ambitous changes to French foreign policy - first ending the war in Algeria, and then withdrawing France from the Nato command structure. De Gaulle declared a new policy of "in every direction", meaning that French military forces were prepared to fight a war against Britain and America, as much as they were against the Soviet Union.

In 1967 de Gaulle visited Quebec, a French-speaking province of Canada and spoke out in favour of independence. This was received as a snub to the English-speaking world, and the British in particular because of the close relationship between Britain and Canada. It was poorly received in Britain and further damaged relations between the two states.

Recent Relations

When De Gaulle was forced out of office in 1968, a new French government under Georges Pompidou were prepared to open a more friendly dialouge with Britian and, althrough they did not reverse much of De Gaulle's foreign policy, they removed their objections to British membership of the EEC opening the way for the United Kingdom to join the common market in 1973.

Since then, relations resemble those of the latter 19th century. The stereotypes of 'frogs' and 'perfidious Albion' have developed further on both sides. The derisive term 'Continental', especially with regards to France, is once more popular in Britain, and the word 'anglais' is in some circles almost an insult in itself in France, as in 'la vice anglaise' ('The English vice', sodomy). Sexual, military, cultural and even hygienic stereotypes have been picked up again.Many British regard the French as largely 'Chauvinistic' (a reference to the zealously patriotic French commander during the Napoleonic Wars, Chauvin). The European Union is viewed with deep suspicion by many British as a 'French Empire', run by French politicians in Brussels for the interests of neo-Napoleonic ideals. This often leads to crisis. At the beginning of the French embargo on British beef after the outbreak of Mad Cow Disease there, many British retailers boycotted French plant produce.

These differing points of view came to a head in the lead-up to the 2003 War in Iraq. Britain, and their American allies, strongly advocated the use of force to remove Saddam Hussein while France strongly opposed such action, going so far as to threaten to veto any resolution proposed to the UN Security Council.

In the European Union the two also came into conflict, as Britain was increasingly aligning with Italy, Spain and the newer Eastern European member states to thwart the traditional leadership of France and Germany. Disagreements over the Common Agricultural Policy and the extent of the British rebate were amongst the issues the two states clashed over.

In 2004 during the centenary celebrations of the Entente Cordiale Anglo-French relations had reached their lowest point in years. Despite this both states asserted the importance of the alliance, and the role it had played during the twentieth century.

arkozy era

Following his election in 2007 President Nicholas Sarkozy has attempted to forge closer relations and urged both countries to "overcome our long-standing rivalries and build together a future that will be stronger because we will be together" in an official trip to the UK. He also said "If we want to change Europe my dear British friends - and we Frenchmen do wish to change Europe - we need you inside Europe to help us do so, not standing on the outside."However, not all relations are negative. There are still Anglophiles in France and Francophiles in Britain, the two countries still learn each other's languages, and there is a large British community in France and a large French community in Britain.

In March 2008, President Nicholas Sarkozy made a state visit to Britain, the first by a French president in twelve yearsFact|date=June 2008. He had a state dinner with Queen Elizabeth II and addressed a joint session of the British parliament where he promised closer cooperation between the two countries' governments in the future. [cite web
url=http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/Top_News/2008/03/26/sarkozy_britain_france_stronger_together/3146/
title=Sarkozy: Britain, France stronger together
accessdaymonth= 27 March
accessyear=2008
date=26 March
year=2008
publisher=United International Press
quote=French President Nicolas Sarkozy told the British Parliament he wanted to forge a new "brotherhood" between countries.]

The Sciences

There have been some major patriotic issues between the French and British scientific communities, despite overall cooperation.As a first example, Newtonian mechanics was not generally accepted in France for about half a century because of what was seen as a competing formulation by Descartes.As a second example of stiff competition, the scandal about which of the two countries deserves credit for the discovery the planet Neptune has still not died down, though the consensus weighs in France's favour.

Arts and Culture

In general, France is regarded with favour by England in regard to its high culture. It is seen as an ideal holiday destination, and French food is considered by many to be a hallmark of superiority. Much of the apparent disdain for French food and culture in England takes the form of self-effacing humour, and British comedy often uses French culture as a butt of jokes. Whether this is representative of true opinion is open to debate.French classical music has always been popular in England. British popular music is in turn popular in France.English literature, in particular the works of Shakespeare, have been immensely popular in France. Delacroix based many of his paintings on scenes from his plays, and it has been said that during the eighteenth century that 'France appreciated Shakespeare when England would not.' reference In turn, French writers such as Molière and Voltaire have been translated numerous times into English. In general, most of the more popular books in either language are translated into the other.

Language

The most common second language taught in schools in Britain is French, and the most commonly taught second language in France is English. A marginally higher proportion of the French population is proficient in English than vice versa. However, due to the popularity of English as a second language in most European countries there are more proficient French speakers in the United Kingdom as a proportion of the population than there are in many other European countries.

The English language derives nearly all of its high-level non-technical vocabulary from French brought over by the Norman invasion. More recently, the English language has imported several technical, culinary, musical and artistic words and expressions from Modern French (entourage, chef, jeté, tête-à-tête). Similarly, French has imported many technological, scientific and pop-cultural words and expressions from Modern English. French is seen as a 'posh' and beautiful language in Britain, so much so that excessive use of French expressions in English is considered pretentious in English.

Although some French people may consider the English language beautiful, a popular French adage runs 'To learn English is a necessity; to learn French is a privilege.' This may be considered to reflect the supercession of French by English as the main international language of Europe and diplomacy.

Sports

In the sport of rugby there is a rivalry between England and France. France has become one of the top countries in the world at rugby, and sends a team to every world cup. Though rugby is originally an English sport, French rugby has developed to such an extent that the English and French teams are now stiff competitors, with neither side greatly superior to the other.

The influence of French players and coaches on British football has been increasing in recent years and is often cited as an example of Anglo-French co-operation. In particular the Premier League club Arsenal FC has become known for its Anglo-French connection due to French players and a French manager Arsene Wenger. In March 2008 their Emirates stadium was chosen as the venue for a meeting during a state visit by the French President precisely for this reason. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/mar/26/france.foreignpolicy] Despite rivarly in rugby, there is no significant rivalry between the international football teams.

See also

* Franco-British Union
* Entente Cordiale
* Auld Alliance
* Perfidious Albion
* Norman Conquest of England
* Angevin Empire
* Hundred Years' War
* Euro 2004
* Second Hundred Years' War
* English claims to the French throne
* European Security and Defence Policy - a Chirac/Blair initiative
* Triple Entente
* Channel Tunnel
* Pax Britannica
* Canada
* Siege of Yorktown
* Huguenots
* French people in the United Kingdom
* SEPECAT Jaguar
* Concorde

Associations to Improve Franco-British relations

Alliance Française de Londres

Association for the Study of Modern and Contemporary France

Birmingham Anglo-French Society

British Council (Paris)

British Embassy in Paris

Central Bureau for International Education and Training

Centre Charles Péguy

Franco-British Colloque

Franco-British Council

Franco-British Lawyers Society

Franco-British Network on Cultural Relations

Franco-British Parliamentary Relations Committee

Franco-British Society

Franco-British Student Alliance

Franco-Scottish Society

French Consulate

French Embassy

Institut français

La Chambre de Commerce française de Grande Bretagne

Maison française d’Oxford

Society for the Study of French History

University of London Institute in Paris (ULIP)

External links

* [http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/Collections/Onlineresources/RWWC/themes/1295/1278 Reassessing what we collect website – French London] History of French London with objects and images

*Franco-British Council Links [http://www.francobritishcouncil.org.uk/links.php]

*University of London in Paris (ULIP) [http://www.ulip.lon.ac.uk/]

Biblography

* Esdaile, Charles. The Peninsular War. Penguin Books (2003)
* Fox, Robin Lane. The Classical World: An Epic History of Greece and Rome. Penguin Books (2006)
* Harvey, Robert. A Few Bloody Noses:The American Revolutionary War. Constable & Robinson (2004).
* Harvey, Robert. The War of Wars: The Great European Conflict, 1793-1815. Robinson (2007).
* Horne, Alistair. Friend or Foe: An Anglo-Saxon History of France. Weidenfield and Nicholson (2005).
* MacMillan, Margaret. Peacemakers: Six Months That Changed the World. John Murray (2003).
* McLynn, Frank. 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World. Pimlico (2005).
* Rodgers, N.A.M. The Command of the Ocean. Penguin Books (2006).
* Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire. Penguin Books (2008)
* Turner, Barry. Suez 1956: The First Oil War. Hodder (2007)
* Urban, Mark. Generals:The British Commanders who Shaped the World. Faber and Faber (2006)

References