- History of Baden
The history of Baden as a state began in the 12th century, as a
fief of theHoly Roman Empire . A fairly inconsequentialmargraviate that was divided between various branches of its ruling family for much of its history, it gained both status and territory during theNapoleon ic era, when it was also raised to agrand duchy . In 1871 it became one of the founder states of theGerman Empire . The monarchy came to an end with the end of theFirst World War , but Baden itself continued in existence as a state ofGermany until the end of theSecond World War .Its territory now forms part of the German state of
Baden-Württemberg .12th century
During the
Middle Ages , various counts ruled the country that now forms Baden. The counts and duchy ofZähringen figure prominently among these. In 1112Hermann , son ofHermann , Margrave of Verona (d. 1074) and grandson ofBerthold , duke of Carinthia and count of Zähringen, having inherited some of the German estates of his family, called himselfMargrave of Baden , and from this time the separate history of Baden dates. Hermann appears to have called himself margrave rather than count, because of the family connection to the margrave of Verona. His son and grandson, both called Hermann, added to their territories, which were then divided, and the lines ofBaden-Baden andBaden-Hochberg were founded, the latter of which divided about a century later into Baden-Hochberg andBaden-Sausenberg . The family of Baden-Baden was very successful in increasing the area of its holdings, which after several divisions were united by the margrave Bernard I in 1391. Bernard, a soldier of some renown, continued the work of his predecessors, and obtained other districts, including Baden-Hochberg, the ruling family of which died out in 1418.13th - 17th centuries
During the 15th century, a war with the
count palatine of the Rhine deprived the Margrave Charles I (died 1475) of a part of his territories, but these losses were more than repaired by his son and successor,Christophe I of Baden ("illustration, right"). In 1503 the family Baden-Sausenberg became extinct, and the whole of Baden was united by Christophe, who divided it, however, before his death in 1527 among his three sons. One of these died childless in 1533, and in 1535 his remaining sons, Bernard and Ernest, having shared their brother's territories, made a fresh division and founded the lines of Baden-Baden andBaden-Pforzheim , called after 1565Baden-Durlach . Further divisions followed, and the weakness caused by these partitions was accentuated by a rivalry between the two main branches of the family. This culminated in open warfare, and from 1584 to 1622 Baden-Baden was in the possession of one of the princes of Baden-Durlach.Religious differences increased the family's rivalry. During the period of the
Reformation some of the rulers of Baden remainedCatholic and some becameProtestant s, and the house was similarly divided during theThirty Years' War . Baden suffered severely during this struggle, and both branches of the family were exiled in turn. ThePeace of Westphalia in 1648 restored the "status quo", and the family rivalry gradually died out.18th century
During the wars of the reign of
Louis XIV of France the margravate was ravaged by French troops, and the towns of Pforzheim, Durlach, and Baden were destroyed. The margrave of Baden-Baden,Louis William (died 1707), figured prominently among the soldiers who resisted the aggressions of France.It was the life's work of Charles Frederick of Baden-Durlach to give territorial unity to his country. Beginning to reign in 1738 and coming of age in 1746, this prince is the most notable of the rulers of Baden. He was interested in the development of
agriculture andcommerce , sought to improveeducation and the administration ofjustice , and proved in general a wise and liberal ruler of the Enlightenment.In 1771
Augustus George of Baden-Baden died without sons, and his territories passed to Charles Frederick, who thus finally became ruler of the whole of Baden. Although Baden was united under a single ruler, the territory was not united in its customs and tolls, tax structure, laws or government. Baden did not even form a compact territory, consisting of a number of isolated districts lying on either bank of the upperRhine . His opportunity for territorial aggrandisement came during theNapoleonic wars .The French Revolution and Napoleon
When the French Revolution threatened to be exported throughout Europe in 1792, Baden joined forces against France, and its countryside was devastated once more. In 1796 the margrave was compelled to pay an indemnity, and to cede his territories on the left bank of the Rhine to France. Fortune, however, soon returned to his side. In 1803, largely owing to the good offices of Alexander I, emperor of
Russia , he received thebishopric ofKonstanz , part of theRhenish Palatinate , and other smaller districts, together with the dignity of aprince-elector . Changing sides in 1805, he fought forNapoleon , with the result that by thepeace of Pressburg in that year he obtained theBreisgau and other territories at the expense of theHabsburgs . In 1806 he joined theConfederation of the Rhine , declared himself a sovereign prince, became a grand-duke, and received other additions of territory.The Baden contingent continued to assist France, and by the
Peace of Vienna in 1809 the grand-duke was rewarded with accessions of territory at the expense of the kingdom ofWürttemberg . Having quadrupled the area of Baden, Charles Frederick died in June 1811, and was succeeded by his grandson,Charles, Grand Duke of Baden , who was married toStéphanie de Beauharnais (1789-1860), a cousin of Empress Josephine's first husband who had been adopted byNapoleon I .Charles fought for his father-in-law until after the
Battle of Leipzig in 1813, when he joined the Allies.Baden in the German Confederation
In 1815 Baden became a member of the
German Confederation established by theAct of the 8th of June , annexed to the Final Act of theCongress of Vienna ofJune 9 . In the haste of the winding-up of the Congress, however, the vexed question of the succession to the grand-duchy had not been settled. This was soon to become acute.By the
treaty of the 16th of April 1816 , by which the territorial disputes between Austria andBavaria were settled, the succession to theBaden Palatinate was guaranteed to kingMaximilian I of Bavaria , in the expected event of the extinction of the line ofZähringen . As a counterblast to this the grand-duke Charles issued in 1817 apragmatic sanction ("Hausgesetz") declaring the counts ofHöchberg , the issue of amorganatic marriage between the grand-duke Charles Frederick andLuise Geyer von Geyersberg (created countess Höchberg), capable of succeeding to the crown. A controversy between Bavaria and Baden resulted, which was only decided in favour of the Höchberg claims by the treaty signed by the four great powers and Baden atFrankfurt onJuly 10 ,1819 .Meanwhile the dispute had produced important effects in Baden. In order to secure popular support for the Hochberg heir, Grand-Duke Charles in 1818 granted to the grand-duchy, under article xiii of the Act of Confederation, a liberal
constitution , under which two chambers were constituted and their assent declared necessary forlegislation andtaxation . The outcome was of importance far beyond the narrow limits of the duchy; for all Germany watched the constitutional experiments of the southern states.In Baden the conditions were not favourable to success. The people had during the revolutionary period fallen completely under the influence of French ideas, and this was sufficiently illustrated by the temper of the new chambers, which tended to model their activity on the proceedings of the
National Convention (1792 - 1795) in the earlier days of theFrench Revolution . On the other hand, the new Grand Duke Louis I (ruled 1818 - 1830), who had succeeded in 1818, was unpopular, and the administration was in the hands of hide-bound and inefficientbureaucrat s.The result was a deadlock; and even before the promulgation of the
Carlsbad Decrees in October 1819 the Grand Duke had prorogued the chambers, after three months of sterile debate. The reaction that followed was as severe in Baden as elsewhere in Germany, and culminated in 1823, when, on the refusal of the chambers to vote the military budget, the Grand Duke dissolved them and levied the taxes on his own authority. In January 1825, owing to official pressure, only three Liberals were returned to the chamber; a law was passed making the budget presentable only every three years, and the constitution ceased to have any active existence.In 1830 Grand Duke Louis was succeeded by his half-brother Grand Duke Leopold (ruled 1830 - 1852), the first of the Höchberg line. The
July Revolution (1830) in France led to no disturbances in Baden; but the new Grand Duke from the first showed liberal tendencies. The elections of 1830 proceeded without interference; and resulted in the return of a Liberal majority. The next few years saw the introduction, under successive ministries, of Liberal reforms in the constitution, in criminal and civil law, and in education.In 1832 the adhesion of Baden to the
Prussia n "Zollverein " did much for the material prosperity of the country. With the approach of the revolutionary year of 1848, however, Radicalism once more began to lift up its head. A popular demonstration held atOffenburg onSeptember 12 ,1847 passed resolutions demanding the conversion of the regulararmy into a nationalmilitia which should take an oath to the constitution, aprogressive income tax and a fair adjustment of the interests ofcapital and labour.Revolution of 1848/49
The news of the revolution of February 1848 in Paris brought the agitation to a head. Numerous public meetings occurred and adopted the Offenburg programme, and on
March 4 , under the influence of the popular excitement, the lower chamber accepted this programme almost unanimously. As in other German states, the government bowed to the storm, proclaimed anamnesty and promised reforms. The ministry remodelled itself in a more Liberal direction; and sent a new delegate to the federal diet atFrankfurt , empowered to vote for the establishment of aparliament for a united Germany.The disorders, fomented by republican agitators, nonetheless continued; and the efforts of the government to suppress them with the aid of federal troops led to an armed insurrection. For the time this was mastered without much difficulty; the
insurgent s, led byFriedrich Hecker and Franz JosephTrefzger , lost atKandern onApril 20 ,1848 ;Freiburg , which they held, fell onApril 24 ; and onApril 27 a Franco-German "legion", which had invaded Baden fromStrasbourg , was routed atDossenbach .At the beginning of 1849, however, the issue of a new constitution, in accordance with the resolutions of the Frankfurt parliament, led to more serious trouble. It did little to satisfy the Radicals, angered by the refusal of the second chamber to agree to their proposal for the summoning of a constituent assembly (
February 10 ,1849 ).The new
insurrection that now broke out proved a more formidable affair than the first. A militarymutiny atRastatt onMay 11 showed that the army sympathised with the revolution, which was proclaimed two days later at Offenburg amid tumultuous scenes. On the same day (May 13 ) a mutiny atKarlsruhe forced Grand Duke Leopold to flee, and the next day his ministers followed, while a committee of the diet underLorenz Brentano (1813-1891), who represented the more moderate Radicals as against the republicans, established itself in the capital to attempt to direct affairs pending the establishment of a provisional government.This was accomplished on
June 1 , and onJune 10 the "constituent diet ", consisting entirely of the most "advanced" politicians, assembled. It had little chance of doing more than make speeches; the country remained in the hands of an armed mob of civilians and mutinous soldiers; and, meanwhile, the Grand Duke of Baden had joined with Bavaria in requesting the armed intervention of Prussia, whichBerlin granted on the condition that Baden should join theLeague of the Three Kings .From this moment the revolution in Baden was doomed, and with it the revolution in all Germany. The Prussians, under Prince William (afterwards
William I, German Emperor ), invaded Baden in the middle of June 1849. Afraid of a military escalation, Brentano reacted hesitantly, afraid of military escalation - too hesitantly for the more radicalGustav Struve and his followers, who overthrew him and established a Pole,Ludwig von Mieroslawski (1814-1878), in his place.Mieroslawski reduced the insurgents to some semblance of order. On
June 20 ,1849 he met the Prussians atWaghausel , and suffered complete defeat; onJune 25 Prince William entered Karlsruhe; and at the end of the month the members of the provisional government, who had taken refuge at Freiburg, dispersed. Such of the insurgent leaders as were caught, notably the ex-officers, suffered military execution; the army was dispersed among Prussian garrison towns; and Prussian troops occupied Baden for a time. Franz Trefzger managed to escape to Switzerland.Grand Duke Leopold returned on
August 10 , and at once dissolved the diet. The following elections resulted in a majority favourable to the new ministry, which passed a series of laws of a reactionary tendency with a view to strengthening the government.1850 - 1866
Grand Duke Leopold died on
April 24 ,1852 , and was succeeded by his second son,Frederick , as regent, the eldest,Louis II, Grand Duke of Baden (diedJanuary 22 ,1858 ), being incapable of ruling. The internal affairs of Baden during the period that followed have comparatively little general interest. In the greater politics of Germany, Baden, between 1850 and 1866, was a consistent supporter ofAustria ; and in theAustro-Prussian War of 1866 her contingents, under Prince William, had two sharp engagements with the Prussianarmy of the Main . Two days before theaffair of Werbach (July 24 ,1866 ), however, the second chamber had petitioned the Grand Duke to end the war and enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia.Towards the German Empire
Grand Duke Frederick I (ruled 1856 - 1907) had from the first opposed the war with Prussia, but had perforce yielded to popular resentment at the policy of Prussia in the
Schleswig-Holstein question. The ministry, now at one, resigned; Baden announced her withdrawal from theGerman Confederation ; and onAugust 17 ,1866 signed a treaty of peace and alliance with Prussia. Bismarck himself resisted the adhesion of Baden to theNorth German Confederation : he had no wish to giveNapoleon III of France so good an excuse for intervention; but the opposition of Baden to the formation of a South German confederation made the ultimate union inevitable. The troops of Baden took a conspicuous share in theFranco-Prussian War of 1870; and it was Grand Duke Frederick of Baden, who, in the historic assembly of the German princes atVersailles , was the first to hail the king of Prussia as Germanemperor .Kulturkampf
The internal politics of Baden, both before and after 1870, centre in the main round the question of religion. The signing on
June 28 ,1859 of aconcordat with theHoly See , which placed education under the oversight of theclergy and facilitated the establishment ofreligious order s, led to a constitutional struggle which ended in 1863 with the victory of Liberal principles, making the communes responsible for education, though admitting the priests to a share in the management. The quarrel between Liberalism andCatholicism , however, did not end. In 1867, on the accession to the premiership ofJulius von Jolly (1823-1891), several constitutional changes in a Liberal direction occurred: responsibility of ministers,freedom of the press , compulsoryeducation . In the same year (September 6 ) a law compelled all candidates for the priesthood to pass government examinations. The archbishop of Freiburg resisted, and, on his death in April 1868, the see remained vacant.In 1869 the introduction of civil marriage did not tend to allay the strife, which reached its climax after the proclamation of the dogma of
papal infallibility in 1870. The "Kulturkampf " raged in Baden, as in the rest of Germany; and here as elsewhere the government encouraged the formation ofOld Catholic communities. Not until 1880, after the fall of the ministry of Jolly, did Baden reconcile with Rome; in 1882 the archbishopric of Freiburg was again filled.Baden in the German Empire
The political tendency of Baden, meanwhile, mirrored that of all Germany. In 1892 the
National Liberal s had but a majority of one in the diet; from 1893 they could maintain themselves only with the aid of the Conservatives; and in 1897 a coalition ofUltramontanes ,Socialists ,Social Democrats and Radicals ("Freisinnige ") won a majority for the opposition in the chamber.Amid all these contests the wise and statesmanlike moderation of the Grand Duke Frederick won him universal esteem. By the treaty under which Baden had become an integral part of the
German Empire in 1871, he had reserved only the exclusive right to taxbeer and spirits; the army, thepost-office , railways and the conduct of foreign relations passed under the effective control of Prussia.In his relations with the German empire, too, Frederick proved himself rather a great German noble than a sovereign prince actuated by particularist ambitions; and his position as husband of the emperor William I's only daughter,
Louise (whom he had married in 1856), gave him a peculiar influence in the councils ofBerlin . When, onSeptember 20 ,1906 , the Grand Duke celebrated at once the jubilee of his reign and his golden wedding anniversary, all Europe combined to do him honour. King Edward VII sent him, by the hands of theDuke of Connaught , the order of theGarter . But more significant, perhaps, was the tribute paid by "Le Temps ", the leading Parisian paper::"Nothing more clearly demonstrates the sterile paradox of the Napoleonic work than the history of the Grand Duchy. It was
Napoleon , and he alone, who created this whole state in 1803 to reward in the person of the little margrave of Baden a relative of theemperor of Russia . It was he who after Austerlitz aggrandized the margravate at the expense of Austria; transformed it into a sovereign principality and raised it to a Grand Duchy. It was he too who, by the secularization on the one hand and by the dismemberment ofWürttemberg on the other, gave the Grand Duke 500,000 new subjects. He believed that the recognition of the prince and the artificial ethnical formation of the principality would be pledges of security for France. But in 1813 Baden joined the coalition, and since then that nation created of odds and ends ("de bric et de broc") and always handsomely treated by us, had not ceased to take a leading part in the struggles against our country. The Grand Duke Frederick, Grand Duke by the will of Napoleon, has done France all the harm he could. But French opinion itself renders justice to the probity of his character and to the ardour of his patriotism, and nobody will feel surprise at the homage with which Germany feels bound to surround his old age."Grand Duke Frederick I died at
Mainau onSeptember 28 ,1907 ; his son, the Grand Duke Frederick II (ruled 1907 - 1918, died 1928), succeeded him.References
ee also
*
The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states External links
* [http://www.hoeckmann.de/germany/map-bwsouth.htm Southwestern Germany in the year 1789]
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