Euripides

Euripides (Ancient Greek: polytonic|Εὐριπίδης) (ca. 480 BC–406 BC) was the last of the three great tragedians of classical Athens (the other two being Aeschylus and Sophocles). Ancient scholars thought that Euripides had written ninety-five plays, although four of those were probably written by Critias. Eighteen of Euripides' plays have survived complete. It is now widely believed that what was thought to be a nineteenth, "Rhesus", was probably not by Euripides.cite web| url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html |last=Halsall |first=Paul |title=Ancient History Sourcebook: 11th Britannica: Euripides] Fragments, some substantial, of most of the other plays also survive. More of his plays have survived than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together, partly because of the chance preservation of a manuscript that was probably part of a complete collection of his works in alphabetical order.

Euripides is known primarily for having reshaped the formal structure of traditional Attic tragedy by showing strong women characters and intelligent slaves, and by satirizing many heroes of Greek mythology. His plays seem modern by comparison with those of his contemporaries, focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown to Greek audiences.

One of the more famous quotes attributed to him by recent writers, "Whom the gods would destroy, they first make mad", does not occur in his works and probably pre-dates him. [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Euripides#Misattributed Sources, variants, and paraphrases at Wikiquote] ]

Life

According to legend, Euripides was born in Salamís on September 23 480 BC, the day of the Persian War's greatest naval battle. Other sources estimate that he was born as early as 485 BC.

His father's name was either Mnesarchus or Mnesarchides and his mother's name Cleito. Evidence suggests that the family was wealthy and influential. It is recorded that he served as a cup-bearer for Apollo's dancers, but he grew to question the religion he grew up with, exposed as he was to thinkers such as Protagoras, Socrates, and Anaxagoras.

He was married twice, to Choerile and Melito, though sources disagree as to which woman he married first. [http://www.queensu.ca/classics/clst312/clst312i.htm] [http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html] Fact|date=March 2007He had three sons, and it is rumored that he also had a daughter who was killed after a rabid dog attacked her (some say this was merely a joke made by Aristophanes, who often poked fun at Euripides).

The record of Euripides' public life, other than his involvement in dramatic competitions, is almost non-existent. The only reliable story of note is one by Aristotle about Euripides being involved in a dispute over a liturgy - a story which offers strong proof to Euripides being a wealthy man. It has been said that he travelled to Syracuse, Sicily; that he engaged in various public or political activities during his lifetime; that he wrote his tragedies in a sanctuary, The Cave of Euripides on Salamis Island; and that he left Athens at the invitation of king Archelaus I of Macedon and stayed with him in Macedonia after 408 BC. According to Pausanias, Euripides was buried in Macedonia.

Plays

Euripides first competed in the Dionysia, the famous Athenian dramatic festival, in 455 BC, one year after the death of Aeschylus. He came in third, reportedly because he refused to cater to the fancies of the judges. It was not until 441 BC that he won first prize, and over the course of his lifetime, Euripides claimed a mere four victories. He also won one posthumous victory.

He was a frequent target of Aristophanes' humour. He appears as a character in "The Acharnians", "Thesmophoriazusae", and most memorably in "The Frogs", where Dionysus travels to Hades to bring Euripides back from the dead. After a competition of poetry, the god opts to bring Aeschylus instead.

Euripides' final competition in Athens was in 408 BC; there is a story that he left Athens embittered over his defeats. He accepted an invitation by the king of Macedon in 408 or 407 BC, and once there he wrote "Archelaus" in honour of his host. He is believed to have died there in winter 407/6 BC; ancient biographers have told many stories about his death, but the simple truth was that it was probably his first exposure to the harsh Macedonia winter which killed him. (Rutherford 1996). "The Bacchae" was performed after his death in 405 BC and won first prize.

When compared with Aeschylus, who won thirteen times, and Sophocles, with eighteen victories, Euripides was the least honoured of the three—at least in his lifetime. Later in the 4th century BC, the dramas of Euripides became the most popular, largely because of the simplicity of the language of his plays. His works influenced New Comedy and Roman drama, and were later idolized by the French classicists; his influence on drama reaches modern times.

Euripides' greatest works include "Alcestis", "Medea", "Electra", and "The Bacchae". Also considered notable is "Cyclops", the only complete satyr play known to survive.

The manuscript, apparently part of a multiple volume, alphabetically-arranged collection of Euripides' works, whose preservation accounts for the comparatively large number of extant plays of Euripides, was rediscovered after lying in a monastic collection for approximately eight hundred years.

In June 2005, classicists at Oxford University worked on a joint project with Brigham Young University, using multi-spectral imaging technology to recover previously illegible writing (see References). Some of this work employed infrared technology—previously used for satellite imaging—to detect previously unknown material by Euripides in fragments of the Oxyrhynchus papyri, [http://www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/] a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university.

Commentary

Euripides has been compared to Rousseau in being too modern for his time.Fact|date=January 2008 Euripides focused on the realism of his characters; for example, Euripides’ Medea is a realistic woman with recognizable emotions,Or|date=January 2008 and has a developed personality with many different facets to her character - she is not simply a villain.In Hippolytus, Euripides writes in a particularly modern style, using the theater to demonstrate how neither language nor sight (the main elements of theater) aids in understanding in a civilization on its last leg. Euripides makes his point about vision both through the plot (Phaedra makes repeated references to her inability to see clearly and her wish to have her eyes covered), and through the sparseness of his staging, which lacked the dazzling elements that other plays often had. The same was true of his commentary on the use of language. The misuse of words played an important role in the storyline (Phaedra's letter, the nurse's betrayal of Phaedra's secret, Hippolytus' refusal to break his oath to save his own life, and his refusal to pay lip-service to Aphrodite), but in addition, the actual language of the play was often purposefully verbose and ungainly, again to show the ineffectual nature of language in comprehension in Euripides' age. [ "A Further Note on the Modernity of "Hippolytus" Robert Skloot. The Classical Journal, Vol. 64, No. 5. (Feb., 1969), pp. 226-227. Stable URL: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-8353%28196902%2964%3A5%3C226%3AAFNOTM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B ] According to Aristotle, Euripides's contemporary Sophocles said that he portrayed men as they ought to be, and Euripides portrayed them as they were. [Aristotle, de Arte Poetica, 1460b 33-34]

Euripides' realistic characterisations were sometimes at the expense of a realistic plot; he sometimes relied upon the "deus ex machina" to resolve his plays, as in "Ion" and "Electra". In the opinion of Aristotle, writing his "Poetics" a century later, this is the worst way to end a play. Many classicists cite this as a reason why Euripides was less popular in his own time.Fact|date=January 2008

Bibliography

Tragedies

# "Alcestis" (438 BC, second prize)
# "Medea" (431 BC, third prize)
# "Heracleidae" (c. 430 BC)
# "Hippolytus" (428 BC, first prize)
# "Andromache" (c. 425 BC)
# "Hecuba" (c. 424 BC)
# "The Suppliants" (c. 423 BC)
# "Electra" (c. 420 BC)
# "Heracles" (c. 416 BC)
# "The Trojan Women" (415 BC, second prize)
# "Iphigeneia in Tauris" (c. 414 BC)
# "Ion" (c. 414 BC)
# "Helen" (412 BC)
# "Phoenician Women" (c. 410 BC)
# "Orestes" (408 BC)
# "Bacchae" and "Iphigeneia at Aulis" (405 BC, posthumous, first prize)

Fragmentary tragedies

The following plays have come down to us today only in fragmentary form; some consist of only a handful of lines, but with some the fragments are extensive enough to allow tentative reconstruction: see "Euripides: Selected Fragmentary Plays" (Aris and Phillips 1995) ed. C. Collard, M.J. Cropp and K.H. Lee.

# "Telephus" (438 BC)
# "Cretans" (c. 435 BC)
# "Stheneboea" (before 429 BC)
# "Bellerophon" (c. 430 BC)
# "Cresphontes" (ca. 425 BC)
# "Erechtheus" (422 BC)
# "Phaethon" (c. 420 BC)
# "Wise Melanippe" (c. 420 BC)
# "Alexandros" (415 BC)
# "Palamedes" (415 BC)
# "Sisyphus" (415 BC)
# "Captive Melanippe" (412 BC)
# "Andromeda" (412 BC with Euripides' "Helen")
# "Antiope" (c. 410 BC)
# "Archelaus" (c. 410 BC)
# "Hypsipyle" (c. 410 BC)
# "Philoctetes" (c. 410 BC)

atyr play

# "Cyclops" (uncertain date)

purious plays

# "Rhesus" (most modern scholars maintain that the play was probably not by Euripides, shows many indications of mid 4th century BC contamination)

References

Further reading

*Barrett, W. S. (ed.), "Euripides, Hippolytos, edited with Introduction and Commentary" (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964; Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1964)
*Croally, N.T. "Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the Function of Tragedy". Cambridge University Press, 1994.
*Ippolito, P. "La vita di Euripide". Napoli: Dipartimento di Filologia Classica dell'Universit'a degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, 1999.
*Kovacs, D. "Euripidea". Leiden: Brill, 1994.
*Lefkowitz, M.R. "The Lives of the Greek Poets". London: Duckworth, 1981.
*Rutherford, Richard. "Euripides: Medea and other plays". Penguin, 1996.
*Scullion, S. "Euripides and Macedon, or the silence of the Frogs". The Classical Quarterly, Oxford, v. 53, n. 2, p. 389-400, 2003.
*Sommerstein, Alan H. "Greek Drama and Dramatists", Routledge, 2002.
*Webster, T. B. L. "The Tragedies of Euripides", Methuen, 1967.
*Multispectral imaging. Oxyrhynchos online. [http://www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/POxy/multi/index.html] Retrieved on 28 Oct 2007.
*Barrett, W. S., "Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism: Collected Papers", ed. M. L. West (Oxford & New York, 2007)

External links

*gutenberg author| id=Euripides | name=Euripides
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567264/Euripides.html Encarta's entry for Euripides]
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/vor?x=0&y=0&lookup=Euripides Euripides-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library]
* [http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html Useful summaries of Euripides' life, works, and other relevant topics of interest at TheatreHistory.com.]
*http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html
*http://www.ac-strasbourg.fr/pedago/lettres/Victor%20Hugo/Notes/Euripide.htm
*http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/~amahoney/tragedy_dates.html
* [http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/euripides.html http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/euripides.html]
* [http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0262381/ IMDBs List of movies based on Euripides plays]
* [http://www.ellopos.net/blog/?p=37 Euripides Resources]
* [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/27/1030053055026.html?oneclick=true Staging of Euripides' fragmentary "Hypsipyle"]
* [http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/euripides.htm SORGLL: Euripides, Trojan Women, 740-779; read by Stephen Daitz]

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