Apollonius of Tyana

Infobox Philosopher
region = Western Philosophy
era = Ancient philosophy
color = #B0C4DE

|thumb
image_size = 200px
image_caption = Apollonius of Tyana
name = Apollonius of Tyana
birth = ca. 40 AD
death = ca. 120 AD
school_tradition = Hellenistic philosophy
main_interests = Pythagoreanism, Occultism
notable_ideas =
influences = Pythagoras
influenced = Philostratus

Apollonius of Tyana (Greek: Polytonic|Ἀπολλώνιος ὁ Τυανεύς; ca. 40?—ca. 120 AD [For the chronology see Maria Dzielska: "Apollonius of Tyana in Legend and History", Rome 1986, p. 30-38.] ) was a Greek Pythagorean philosopher and teacher. He hailed from the town of Tyana in the Roman province of Cappadocia in Asia Minor. His date of birth is a matter of conjecture as some say he was roughly a contemporary of Jesus, in fact Eells (Life and Times of Apollonius, 1923, p.3) states his date of birth three years before Jesus of Nazareth, whose date of birth is also debatable.

However, Philostratus’ the Elder (c170-247 AD) in "Life of Apollonius", places him staying in the court of King Vardanes I of Parthia for a while, who ruled between c.40-47 AD. Apollonius began a five year silence at about the age of 20, and after the completion of this silence travelled to Mesopotamia and Iran. The text also mentions the emperors Nero, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian and Nerva at various points throughout Apollonius’ life. Given this information, a timeline of roughly the years 15- 98 AD can be established for his life. After his death his name remained famous among philosophers and occultists.

Sources

By far the most detailed source is the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", a lengthy, novelistic biography written by the sophist Philostratus at the request of empress Julia Domna. She died in 217 AD, and he completed it after her death, between 217 and 238 AD. Philostratus’ account shaped the image of Apollonius for posterity and still dominates discussions about him in our times. To some extent it is a valuable source because it contains data from older writings which were available to Philostratus but disappeared later on. Many think that it is full of obviously fictitious stories and dialogues. Modern Christian scholars challenge its credibility in many regards.Ewen L. Bowie, "Apollonius of Tyana: Tradition and Reality", in: "Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt" II.16.2, Berlin 1978, p. 1652-99.] They dismiss most of it as pure invention (either by Philostratus or by his sources). Philostratus’ chronology, for instance, is often questioned. According to him, Apollonius lived from ca. 3 BC to about 97 AD, while many contend that he was born more than four decades later and died more than two decades later. [Dzielska p. 30-38.]

One of the essential sources Philostratus claimed to know are the “memoirs” (or “diary”) of Damis, an alleged disciple and companion of Apollonius. Some scholars believe the notebooks of Damis are an invention of Philostratus, while others think it was a real book forged by someone else and used by Philostratus. In any case it is a literary fake. [Jaap-Jan Flinterman: "Power, Paideia and Pythagoreanism", Amsterdam 1995, p. 79-88; Dzielska p. 12-13, 19-49, 141; Bowie p. 1653-1671.] Philostratus describes Apollonius as a wandering teacher of philosophy and miracle worker who was active in Italy, Spain and Ethiopia and even travelled to Mesopotamia, Arabia and India. In particular, he tells lengthy stories of Apollonius entering the city of Rome in disregard of emperor Nero’s ban on philosophers, and later on being summoned, as a defendant, to the court of emperor Domitian, where he defied the emperor in blunt terms. The latter charge had regarded the foretelling of a certain plague, to which Apollonius attributed to his prayer to Heracles and not to any sorcery on his part, arguing " [what wizard] would dedicate his personal achievement to a god? [Philostratus 8.9.2-3.]

Apollonius may have never left the Greek East. Many contend that he never came to Western Europe and was virtually unknown there till the third century AD when empress Julia Domna, who was herself an Easterner, decided to popularize him and his teachings in Rome. [Dzielska p. 83-85, 186-192.] For that purpose she commissioned Philostratus to write the biography, where Apollonius is exalted as a fearless sage with supernatural powers, even greater than Pythagoras. Philostratus states that upon his death, Apollonius of Tyana underwent heavenly assumption. [Hornblower, Simon and Spawforth, Antony, editors "The Oxford Classical Dictionary" Third Edition Oxford/New York: 1996 Oxford University Press, "s.v." "Apollonius of Tyana", p. 128 ] Subsequently Apollonius was worshipped by Julia’s son emperor Caracalla [Cassius Dio 77.18.4; see on this Dzielska p. 56, 59-60.] and possibly also by her grand-nephew emperor Severus Alexander. ["Historia Augusta", "Vita Alexandri" 29.2; the credibility of this information is doubted by Dzielska p. 174.]

Two biographical sources earlier than Philostratus are lost: a book by emperor Hadrian’s secretary Maximus of Aegae describing Apollonius’ activities in the city of Aegae in Cilicia, and a biography by a certain Moiragenes.

Historical facts

Little can be derived from sources other than Philostratus. Hence if we dismiss Philostratus’ colorful stories as fiction, the figure of the historical Apollonius appears to be rather shadowy. As James Francis put it, "the most that can be said … is that Apollonius appears to have been a wandering ascetic/philosopher/wonderworker of a type common to the eastern part of the early empire." [James A. Francis: "Truthful Fiction: New Questions to Old Answers on Philostratus' Life of Apollonius", in: "American Journal of Philology" 119 (1998) p. 419.] What we can safely assume is that he was indeed a Pythagorean and as such, in conformity with the Pythagorean tradition, opposed animal sacrifice, and lived on a frugal, strictly vegetarian diet. [Johannes Haussleiter: "Der Vegetarismus in der Antike", Berlin 1935, p. 299-312.] He seems to have spent his entire life in the cities of his native Asia Minor and of northern Syria, in particular his home town of Tyana, Ephesus, Aegae, and Antioch. [Dzielska p. 51-79.] As for his philosophical convictions, we have an interesting, probably authentic fragment of one of his writings ("On sacrifices") where he expresses his view that God, who is the most beautiful being, cannot be influenced by prayers or sacrifices and has no wish to be worshipped by humans, but can be reached by a spiritual procedure involving "nous", because he himself is pure "nous" and "nous" is also the greatest faculty of mankind. [Dzielska p. 139-141.] . The life of Jesus of Nazareth is often compared to that of Apollonius of Tyana.

Extra-sensory perception

Apollonius was credited with extra-sensory perceptions. When emperor Domitian was murdered on September 18, 96 AD, Apollonius allegedly witnessed the event in Ephesus on precisely the day and hour it happened in Rome, and told those present what he saw. Both Philostratus and renowned historian Cassius Dio report this incident, probably on the basis of an oral tradition. Both state that the philosopher welcomed the deed as a praiseworthy tyrannicide. [Cassius Dio 67.18; Philostratus, "Vita Apollonii" 8.26-27. See also Dzielska p. 30-32, 41.]

Journey to India

Philostratus devoted two and a half of the eight books of his "Life of Apollonius" (1.19-3.58) to the description of a journey of his hero to India. According to Philostratus' "Life", en route to the Far East, Apollonius reached Hierapolis Bambyce (Manbij) in Syria (not Nineveh, as some scholars believed), where he met Damis, a native of that city who became his lifelong companion. Pythagoras, whom the Neo-Pythagoreans regarded as an exemplary sage, was believed to have travelled to India. Hence such a feat made Apollonius look like a good Pythagorean who spared no pains in his efforts to discover the sources of oriental piety and wisdom. As some details in Philostratus’ account of the Indian adventure seem incompatible with known facts, modern scholars are inclined to dismiss the whole story as a fanciful fabrication, but not all of them rule out the possibility that the Tyanean actually did visit India. [Graham Anderson: "Philostratus", London 1986, p. 199-215; Flinterman p. 86-87, 101-106.]

On the other hand, there seemed to be independent evidence showing that Apollonius was known in India. In two Sanskrit texts quoted by Sanskritist Vidhushekhara Bhattacharya in 1943 [Bhattacharya, "The Āgamaśātra of Gaudapāda" (University of Calcutta Press) 1943 (reprint Delhi 1989). ] he appears as "Apalūnya", in one of them together with Damis (called "Damīśa"). There it is claimed that Apollonius and Damis were Western yogis who held wrong Buddhist views, but later on were converted to the correct Advaita philosophy. [ Bhattacharya (1943) 1989, pp LXXII-LXXV.] Classical philologists believed that these Indian sources derived their information from a Sanskrit translation of Philostratus’ work (which would have been a most uncommon and amazing occurrence), or even considered the possibility that it was really an independent confirmation of the historicity of the journey to India. ["The Cambridge History of Classical Literature", vol. 1, ed. P.E. Easterling/B.M.W. Knox, Cambridge 1985, p. 657; Dzielska p. 29; Anderson p. 173; Flinterman p. 80 n. 113.] Only in 1995 were the passages in the Sanskrit texts proven to be interpolations by a modern (late 19th century) forger . [Simon Swain: "Apollonius in Wonderland", in: "Ethics and Rhetoric", ed. Doreen Innes, Oxford 1995, pp 251-54.]

Writings

Several writings and many letters have been ascribed to Apollonius, but some of them are lost (if they ever existed); others have only been preserved in parts or fragments of disputed authenticity. Porphyry and Iamblichus refer to a biography of Pythagoras by Apollonius, which has not survived; it is also mentioned in the Suda. [Flinterman p. 76-79; Dzielska p. 130-134.] Apollonius wrote a treatise "On sacrifices", of which only a short, probably authentic fragment has come down to us. [Dzielska p. 129-130, 136-141, 145-149.]

Philostratus’ "Life" and the anthology assembled by John Stobaeus contain purported letters of Apollonius. Some of them are cited in full, others only partially. Besides, there is an independently transmitted collection of letters preserved in medieval manuscripts. It is difficult to determine what is authentic and what not. Some of the letters were forgeries or literary exercises assembled in collections which were already circulated in the 2nd century AD. In any case there is no doubt that Philostratus himself forged a considerable part of the letters he inserted into his work; others were older forgeries available to him. [Flinterman p. 70-72; Dzielska p. 38-44, 54, 80-81, 134-135.]

Impact

Antiquity

In the second century the satirist Lucian of Samosata was a sharp critic of Neo-Pythagoreanism. After 180 AD he wrote a pamphlet where he attacked Alexander of Abonoteichus, a student of one of Apollonius’ students, as a charlatan, and suggested that the whole school was based on fraud. [Lucian of Samosata: "Alexander, or The False Prophet", in: "Lucian", vol. 4, ed. A.M. Harmon, Cambridge (Mass.) 1992 (Loeb Classical Library no. 162), p. 173-253 (Apollonius is mentioned on p. 182).] From this we can infer that Apollonius really had students and that his school survived at least till Lucian’s time. One of Philostratus’ foremost aims was to oppose this view; although he related various miraculous feats of Apollonius, he emphasized at the same time that his hero was not a magician, but a serious philosopher and a champion of traditional Greek values. [Flinterman p. 60-66, 89-106.]

When emperor Aurelian conducted his military campaign against the Palmyrene Empire, he captured Tyana in 272 AD. According to the "Historia Augusta" he abstained from destroying the city after having a vision of Apollonius admonishing him to spare the innocent citizens. ["Historia Augusta", "Vita Aureliani" 24.2-9; 25.1.]

In Philostratus’ description of Apollonius’ life and deeds there are a number of similarities with the life and especially the claimed miracles of Jesus. Perhaps this parallel was intentional, but the original aim was hardly to present Apollonius as a rival of Jesus. However, in the late third century Porphyry, an anti-Christian Neoplatonic philosopher, claimed in his treatise "Against the Christians" that the miracles of Jesus were not unique, and mentioned Apollonius as a non-Christian who had accomplished similar achievements. Around 300, Roman authorities used the fame of Apollonius in their struggle to wipe out Christianity. Hierocles, one of the main instigators of the persecution of Christians in 303, wrote a pamphlet where he argued that Apollonius exceeded Christ as a wonder-worker and yet wasn’t worshipped as a god, and that the cultured biographers of Apollonius were more trustworthy than the uneducated apostles. This attempt to make Apollonius a hero of the anti-Christian movement provoked sharp replies from bishop Eusebius of Caesarea and from Lactantius. [Dzielska p. 15, 98-103, 153-157, 162.] Eusebius wrote an extant reply to the pamphlet of Hierocles, where he claimed that Philostratus was a fabulist and that Apollonius was a sorcerer in league with demons. This started a debate on the relative merits of Jesus and Apollonius that has gone on in different forms into modern times.

In Late Antiquity talismans allegedly made by Apollonius appeared in several cities of the Eastern Roman Empire, as if they were sent from heaven. They were magical figures and columns erected in public places, meant to protect the cities from afflictions. The great popularity of these talismans was a challenge to the Christians. Some Byzantine authors condemned them as sorcery and the work of demons, others admitted that such magic was beneficial; none of them claimed that it didn’t work. [Dzielska p. 99-127, 163-165.]

In the Western Roman Empire, Sidonius Apollinaris was a Christian admirer of Apollonius in the 5th century. He produced a Latin translation of Philostratus’ "Life", which is lost. [Sidonius Apollinaris, "Epistolae" 8.3; for the interpretation of this passage see André Loyen (ed.), "Sidoine Apollinaire", vol. 3: "Lettres (Livres VI-IX)", Paris 1970, p. 196-197.]

Islamic world and Baha’i

Apollonius was a known figure in the medieval Islamic world. In the Arabic literature he appears as Balīnūs (or Balīnās or Abūlūniyūs). Arabic-speaking occultists dubbed him "Lord of the talismans" (Ṣᾱḥib aṭ-ṭilasmᾱt) and related stories about his achievements as a talisman-maker. They appreciated him as a master of alchemy and a transmitter of Hermetic knowledge. Some occult writings circulated under his name; among them were: [Martin Plessner: "Balinus", in: "The Encyclopaedia of Islam", vol. 1, Leiden 1960, p. 994-995; Ursula Weisser: "Das „Buch über das Geheimnis der Schöpfung“ von Pseudo-Apollonios von Tyana", Berlin 1980, p. 23-39; Dzielska p. 112-123.]
* the Kitᾱb Sirr al-ḫalīqa ("Book on the Secret of Creation"), also named Kitᾱb al-῾ilal ("Book of the Causes")
* the Risᾱla fī taṯīr ar-rūḥᾱnīyᾱt fī l-murakkabᾱt ("Treatise on the influence of the spiritual beings on the composite things")
* al-Mudḫal al-kabīr ilᾱ risᾱlati aṭ-ṭalᾱsim ("Great introduction to the treatise on the talismans")
* the Kitᾱb ṭalᾱsim Balīnᾱs al-akbar ("Great book of Balinas’ talismans")
* the Kitᾱb Ablūs al-ḥakīm ("Book of the sage Ablus")

Medieval alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan's "Book of Stones According to the Opinion of Balīnās" contains an exposition and analysis of views expressed in Arabic occult works attributed to Apollonius. [Syed Nomanul Haq: "Names, Natures and Things", Dordrecht 1994 (introduction to the "Book of Stones" with partial edition, translation, and commentary).]

There were also medieval Latin and vernacular translations of Arabic books attributed to “Balinus”. [Plessner p. 995.]

The "Tablet of Wisdom" written by Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, names "Balinus" (Apollonius) as a great philosopher, who "surpassed everyone else in the diffusion of arts and sciences and soared unto the loftiest heights of humility and supplication." [Bahá'u'lláh, " [http://www.bahai-library.com/writings/bahaullah/tb/8.html LAWH-I-HIKMAT (Tablet of Wisdom)] " in: " [http://www.bahai-library.com/writings/bahaullah/tb/index.html Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh revealed after the Kitáb-i-Aqdas] ", Wilmette 1988, p. 135-152, §31; Keven Brown, "Hermes Trismegistus and Apollonius of Tyana in the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh", in: "Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a Bahá’í Theology", ed. Jack McLean, Los Angeles 1997, p. 153-187.]

Modern era

In Europe, there has been great interest in Apollonius since the beginning of the 16th century, but the traditional ecclesiastical viewpoint still prevailed. Till the Age of Enlightenment the Tyanean was usually treated as a demonic magician and a great enemy of the Church who collaborated with the devil and tried to overthrow Christianity. [Dzielska p. 193-204.] On the other hand, several advocates of Enlightenment, deism and anti-Church positions saw him as an early forerunner of their own ethical and religious ideas, a proponent of a universal, non-denominational religion compatible with Reason. In 1680, Charles Blount, a radical English deist, published the first English translation of the first two books of Philostratus' "Life" with an anti-Church introduction. Voltaire praised Apollonius.

As in Late Antiquity, comparisons between Apollonius and Christ became commonplace in the 17th and 18th centuries in the context of polemic about Christianity. [Dzielska p. 204-209.] In the Marquis de Sade's "Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man", the Dying Man compares Jesus to Apollonius as a false prophet. Some Theosophists, notably C.W. Leadbeater, Alice A. Bailey, and Benjamin Creme, have maintained that Apollonius of Tyana was the reincarnation of the being they call the Master Jesus. In the 20th century, Ezra Pound evoked Apollonius in his later "Cantos" as a figure associated with sun-worship and a messianic rival to Christ. Pound identifies him as Aryan within an anti-semitic mythology, and celebrates his solar worship and aversion to ancient Jewish animal sacrifice. In the Gerald Messadié's "The man who became god", Apollonius appears as a wandering philosopher and magician of about the same age as Jesus. The two of them supposedly met.

In fiction

*Apollonius appears as a fictional character in the 1935 novel "The Circus of Dr. Lao", as well as the 1964 film adaptation "7 Faces of Dr. Lao". In these works, Apollonius works in the circus as a fortune-teller, who is under a curse — he sees the future, but can only speak the exact truth, thus seems to be cruel and hateful. He is portrayed as being blind, and apparently weary of many years of predicting disappointment for his listeners.
*Apollonius appears as a fictional character in the 1977 television series "The Fantastic Journey" in the seventh episode named "Funhouse". In this episode, Apollonius attempts to take possession of the scientist Willaway in a funhouse but is thwarted by Varian, "a man from the future possessing awesome powers".

Editions

* "Philostratus: Apollonius of Tyana. Letters of Apollonius, Ancient Testimonia, Eusebius’s Reply to Hierocles", ed. Christopher P. Jones, Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2006 (Loeb Classical Library no. 458), ISBN 0-674-99617-8 (Greek texts and English translations)
* "Philostratus: The Life of Apollonius of Tyana", ed. Christopher P. Jones, vol. 1 (Books I-IV) and 2 (Books V-VIII), Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2005 (Loeb Classical Library no. 16 and no. 17), ISBN 0-674-99613-5 and ISBN 0-674-99614-3 (Greek text and English translation)

Notes

Literature

* Jaap-Jan Flinterman: "Power, Paideia and Pythagoreanism", Amsterdam 1995, ISBN 90-5063-236-X
* Maria Dzielska: "Apollonius of Tyana in Legend and History", Rome 1986, ISBN 88-7062-599-0
* Graham Anderson: "Philostratus. Biography and Belles Lettres in the Third Century A.D.", London 1986, ISBN 0-7099-0575-0
* James A. Francis: "Subversive Virtue. Asceticism and Authority in the Second-Century Pagan World", University Park (PA) 1995, ISBN 0-271-01304-4
* Christopher P. Jones, "Apollonius of Tyana in Late Antiquity," in Scott Fitzgerald Johnson (ed.) "Greek Literature in Late Antiquity: Dynamism, Didacticism, Classicism" (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2006), 49-66.

External links

* [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/apollonius01.html Apollonius article at Livius.org]
* [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_00.html Philostratus' "Life of Apollonius of Tyana"]