Sociobiological theories of rape

Sociobiological theories of rape are theories that explore to what degree, if any, evolutionary adaptations influence the psychology of rapists. Such theories are highly controversial, as traditional theories typically do not consider rape to be a behavioral adaptation. Some object to such theories on ethical, religious, political as well as scientific grounds.

Rape as an adaptation among animals

It has long been observed that some animals appear to show behavior resembling rape in humans, such as combining sexual intercourse with violent assault, often observed in ducks and geese. Sometimes an animal is approached and sexually penetrated while it appears to not want it -- e.g. it struggles or tries to escape. These observations of forced sex among animals are not controversial. What is controversial is the interpretation of these observations, and the extension of theories based on them to humans.

It is because rape can result in increased fitness that some sociobiologists theorize that rape may be genetically advantageous for rapists, and thus prosper as a psychological adaptation.

It has also been recorded that certain species of mole will 'rape' new borns of their own species, the advantage to this is that when those moles mature and become fertile, they will become pregnant with the sperm of the mole that had mated with them at a very young age.Fact|date=February 2007

See: Non-human animal sexuality

"A Natural History of Rape"

The idea that rape evolved as a genetically advantageous behavioral adaptation was popularised by biologist Randy Thornhill and anthropologist Craig T. Palmer in their book "A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion".

Thornhill and Palmer's argument begins with the statement that all human behaviors are, no matter how indirectly, the result of some evolutionary adaptation (see adaptationism). They note that since the human brain itself, and thus all capacities for any kind of action whatsoever, evolved from natural selection, the only point of dispute is whether rape is only a by-product of some other unrelated adaptation (such as a desire for aggression, domination, etc.) or if rape itself is an adaptation favored because it increases the number of descendants of rapists. The authors are in disagreement over which of these hypotheses will be confirmed by the evidence.

Thornhill and Palmer argue that it is possible that the underlying motivations of rapists evolved because they were at one time conducive to reproduction. In the book, they note that the overwhelming majority of rape victims are of childbearing age, suggesting that childbearing ability is involved in a rapist's choice of victims. They also cite evidence that penile-vaginal intercourse is more likely to occur with rape victims who are of reproductive age, which they argue as evidence that men are at least somewhat sexually, and therefore reproductively, motivated.

Women, they argue, have psychological adaptations that protect their genes from would-be rapists. "We feel that the woman's perspective on rape can be best understood by considering the negative influences of rape on female reproductive success," they write. For example, the book cites a study claiming that victims of optimal childbearing age suffer more emotional trauma from rape than older women or pre-pubescent girls. They present this as evidence consistent with their theory, as women in the ancestral environment in their post and pre-reproductive years had less to lose, in terms of genetic progeny, by being raped.

The book calls rape "a natural, biological phenomenon that is a product of the human evolutionary heritage..." akin to" the leopard's spots and the giraffe's elongated neck", which angered many feminists, including Susan Brownmiller, who discussed the book's findings with the authors on NPR.

Although they present rape as an evolutionary inclination, they stress that they are doing so primarily to reveal better ways to combat rape, not to excuse modern rapists (see Appeal to nature). Rape can only be eliminated, they argue, once a society is fully aware of its evolutionary origins. A large section of the book is spent discussing rape-prevention methods. They investigate the effectiveness of chemical castration and other punishments common today, and advocate harsher sentences for rapists than are currently employed, and, more controversially, educational programs explaining the evolutionary causes of rape to young men so that they can better suppress these instincts.

Harvard Professor of Psychology and popular science writer Steven Pinker has spoken out in support of Thornhill and Palmer's work. He writes, "This is a courageous, intelligent, and eye-opening book with a noble goal - to understand and eliminate a loathsome crime. Armed with logic and copious data, "A Natural History of Rape" will force many intellectuals to decide which they value more: established dogma and ideology, or the welfare of real women in the real world."

Criticism

Evolutionary psychology proponent Edward H. Hagen states in his [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/evpsychfaq.html Evolutionary Psychology FAQ] that he believes there is no clear evidence for the hypothesis that rape is adaptive. He believes the adaptivity of rape is "possible", but claims there is not enough evidence to be certain one way or the other. However, he encourages such evidence to be obtained: "Whether human males possess psychological adaptations for rape will only be answered by careful studies seeking evidence for such cognitive specializations. To not seek such evidence is like failing to search a suspect for a concealed weapon." [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/epfaq/rape.html]

The book "Evolution, Gender, and Rape" compiles the views of twenty-eight prominent biologists in opposition to sociobiological theories of rape.

See also

* Sexual selection
* Sexy son hypothesis - evolutionary theory regarding female reproductive strategy
*

References

Forced sex in animals:
* Abele, L. and Gilchrist, S. (1977), "Homosexual rape and sexual selection in Acanthocephalan worms", "Science" 197: 81-83.
* Barash, D. (1977), "Sociobiology of Rape in Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos): Responses of the Mated Male", "Science" 197: 788-789.

Theories regarding rape in humans:
* McKibbin, W.F., Shackelford, T.K., Goetz, A.T., & Starratt, V.G. (2008). Why do men rape? An evolutionary psychological perspective. "Review of General Psychology, 12," 86-97. [http://www.toddkshackelford.com/downloads/McKibbin-et-al-RGP-2008.pdf Full text]
* Thornhill, R. and Palmer, C. (2000), "A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion". Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-20125-9
* Thornhill, R. and Thornhill, N. (1983), "Human Rape: An Evolutionary Analysis", "Ethology and Sociobiology" 4:137-173.

Responses to these theories:
* Fausto-Sterling, A. "Putting Woman in Her (Evolutionary) Place," in "Myths of Gender." Basic Books, (1992). ISBN 0-465-04792-0
* Travis, C. B. (ed.) (2003) "Evolution, Gender, and Rape." A Bradford Book, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 454 pp., ISBN 0-262-70090-5.

Other evidence:
* Chavanne, T. J. & Gallup, G. G., Jr. (1998) Variation in risk taking behavior among female college students as a function of the menstrual cycle. "Evolution and Human Behavior", 19, 27-32.

External links

* [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/epfaq/rape.html The Evolutionary Psychology FAQ entry on rape]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn907 Insult to injury] 20 June 2001 New Scientist Print Edition by Matt Walker
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1398894.stm Link between rape and pregnancy] 20 June, 2001 BBC News.