Aviation and the environment

Aviation impacts the environment because aircraft engines emit noise, particulates, gases, contribute to climate change cite web|url = http://www.icao.int/icao/en/env/aee.htm|title = Aircraft Engine Emissions |accessdate = 2008-03-19|last = International Civil Aviation Organization, Air Transport Bureau (ATB) |authorlink = |year = undated] cite web|url = http://www.enviro.aero/Impactofflying.aspx|title = What is the impact of flying?|accessdate = 2008-03-19|last = Enviro.aero|authorlink = |year = undated] and global dimming.cite journal
title=Contrails reduce daily temperature range
first=David J.
last=Travis
author=Carleton, Andrew M. & Lauritsen, Ryan G
journal=Nature
pages=601
volume=418
year=2002
url=http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf
doi=10.1038/418601a] Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. [cite press release | title = Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme | publisher = EU press release | date = 2006-12-20 | url = http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/06/1862 | accessdate = 2008-01-02 ]

There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. [ [http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/trading/eu/pdf/including-aviation-icf.pdf Including Aviation into the EU ETS: Impact on EU allowance prices ] ICF Consulting for DEFRA February 2006]

Climate change

Like all human activities involving combustion, most forms of aviation release carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the earth's atmosphere, very likely contributing to the acceleration of global warming. [Exceptions include hang gliding, paragliding, winch-launched gliders — where the winch is not powered by fossil fuels — and human- or other non-combustion powered flight.]

In addition to the CO₂ released by most aircraft in flight through the burning of fuels such as Jet-A (turbine aircraft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry also contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground airport vehicles and those used by passengers and staff to access airports, as well as through emissions generated by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the manufacture of aircraft and the construction of airport infrastructure.

While the principal greenhouse gas emission from powered aircraft in flight is CO₂, other emissions may include nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, (together termed oxides of nitrogen or NO_x), water vapour and particulates (soot and sulfate particles), sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO₂ immediately upon release), incompletely-burned hydrocarbons, tetra-ethyl lead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use.Fact|date=December 2007

The contribution of civil aircraft-in-flight to global CO₂ emissions has been estimated at around 2%. [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/aviation/index.htm IPCC, "Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" (1999), Cambridge University Press] ] However, in the case of high-altitude airliners which frequently fly near or in the stratosphere, non-CO₂ altitude-sensitive effects may increase the total impact on anthropogenic (man-made) climate change significantly —Fact|date=December 2007 this problem is not present for aircraft that routinely operate at lower altitudes well inside the troposphere, such as balloons, airships, helicopters, most light aircraft, and many commuter aircraft.Fact|date=December 2007

Mechanisms

Subsonic aircraft-in-flight contribute to climate change in four ways:

;Carbon dioxide (CO₂) :CO₂ emissions from aircraft-in-flight are the most significant and best understoodcite journal | last = Sausen | first = Robert | coauthors = Ivar Isaksen, Volker Grewe, Didier Hauglustaine, David S. Lee, Gunnar Myhre, Marcus O. KÖhler, Giovanni Pitari, Ulrich Schumann, Frode Stordal and Christos Zerefos | title = Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: an update on IPCC | journal = Meteorologische Zeitschrift | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 555–561 | publisher = Gebrüder Borntraeger | date = 2005 | url = http://www-lsceinca.cea.fr/pdf/Sausen%20et%20al.%20MetZei%202005.pdf | accessdate = 2008-01-12 | doi = 10.1127/0941-2948/2005/0049] element of aviation's total contribution to climate change. The level and effects of CO₂ emissions are currently believed to be broadly the same regardless of altitude (i.e they have the same atmospheric effects as ground based emissions). In 1992, emissions of CO₂ from aircraft were estimated at around 2% of all such anthropogenic emissions, though CO₂ concentration attributable to aviation in 1992 was around 1% of the total anthropogenic increase, because emissions occurred only in the last 50 years. [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/aviation/006.htm#spm41 "Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" (1999), Cambridge University Press] ]

;Oxides of nitrogen (NO_x):At the high altitudes flown by large jet airliners around the tropopause, emissions of NO_x are particularly effective in forming ozone (O₃) in the upper troposphere. High altitude (8-13km) NO_x emissions result in greater concentrations of O₃ than surface NO_x emissions, and these in turn have a greater global warming effect. The effect of O₃ concentrations are regional and local (as opposed to CO₂ emissions, which are global).

:NO_x emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect. This effect does not, however, offset the O₃ forming effect of NO_x emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete O₃, partially offsetting the NO_x-induced O₃ increases. These effects have not been quantified. This problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, such as light aircraft or many commuter aircraft.

;Water vapor (H₂O)

:Very large aircraft-in-flight at high altitude emit water vapour, a greenhouse gas, which under certain atmospheric conditions forms Condensation trails, or contrails. Contrails are visible line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have a global warming effect (though one less significant than either CO₂ emissions or NO_x induced effects) [http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf SPM-2] . Contrails are extremely rare from lower-altitude aircraft, or from propeller aircraft or rotorcraft.

:Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the persistent formation of contrails and have been found to have a global warming effect over-and-above that of contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scientific uncertainty over the contribution of contrail and cirrus cloud formation to global warming and attempts to estimate aviation's overall climate change contribution do not tend to include its effects on cirrus cloud enhancement.

;Particulates:Least significant is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming effect; sulfate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect. In addition, they can influence the formation and properties of clouds. [cite web | title = Questions & Answers on Aviation & Climate Change | publisher = European Commission | date = 2005-09-17 | url = http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/05/341&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en | accessdate = 2008-01-12 ] All aircraft powered by combustion will release some amount of soot.

Total effect

In attempting to aggregate and quantify these effects the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviation’s total climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its CO₂ emissions alone (excluding the potential impact of cirrus cloud enhancement). This is measured as radiative forcing. While there is uncertainty about the exact level of impact of NO_x and water vapour, governments have accepted the broad scientific view that they do have an effect. Accordingly, more recent UK government policy statements have stressed the need for aviation to address its total climate change impacts and not simply the impact of CO₂. [ [http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_aviation/documents/divisionhomepage/029650.hcsp "The Future of Air Transport White Paper" (2003), HMSO] "The aviation industry is encouraged to take account of, and where appropriate reduce, its contribution to global warming...The impact of aviation on climate change is increased over that of direct CO₂ emissions alone by some of the other emissions released and their specific effects at altitude".]

The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for around 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a figure which includes both CO₂ and non-CO₂ induced effects. The IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this figure could be in 2050. The central case estimate is that aviation’s contribution could grow to 5% of the total contribution by 2050 if action is not taken to tackle these emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%. Moreover, if other industries achieve significant cuts in their own greenhouse gas emissions, aviation’s share as a proportion of the remaining emissions could also rise. Per passenger kilometre, figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide emissions of 0.1kg for large jet airliners (a figure which does not account for the production of other pollutants or condensation trails). [cite book | last = Goodall | first = Chris | title = How to Live a Low-carbon Life: The Individual's Guide to Stopping Climate Change | publisher = Earthscan Publications Ltd | date = 2007-02-08 | pages = 326 | isbn = 1844074269p. 222]

Potential reductions

Modern jet aircraft are significantly more fuel efficient (and thus emit less CO₂ in particular) than 30 years ago. [ IATA/ATAG, "Aviation & the Environment" (1999) "Aircraft fuel efficiency has improved by some 50% over the past 30 years" ] . Moreover, manufacturers have forecast and are committed to achieving reductions in both CO₂ and NO_x emissions with each new generation of design of aircraft and engine. [ [http://ec.europa.eu/research/growth/pdf/acare_press_release_revised_8-11.pdf Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research in Europe (ACARE) "Strategic Research Agenda" (2002)] "These objectives include, inter alia, a 50% cut in CO2 and 80% in Nox emissions" [for new aircraft introduced in 2020 relative to new aircraft introduced in 2000] . ] The accelerated introduction of more modern aircraft therefore represents a major opportunity to reduce emissions per passenger kilometre flown.Fact|date=December 2007

Other opportunities arise from the optimisation of airline timetables, route networks and flight frequencies to increase load factors (minimise the number of empty seats flown), [ International Civil Aviation "Organization Operational Opportunities to Minimize Fuel Use and Reduce Emissions" (2001) ] together with the optimisation of airspace.

Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact is the limitation of cruise altitude of aircraft. This would lead to a significant reduction in high-altitude contrails for a marginal trade-off of increased flight time and an estimated 4% increase in CO₂ emissions. Drawbacks of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to do this, especially in Europe and North America and increased fuel burn due to jet aircraft being less efficient at lower cruise altitudes. [cite journal | last = Williams | first = Victoria | coauthors = Robert B. Nolanda and Ralf Toumib | title = Reducing the climate change impacts of aviation by restricting cruise altitudes | journal = Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 451–464 | date = November 2002 | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VH8-461XGG5-2&_user=2717328&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000056831&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=2717328&md5=b533e05b2465b167cfb5a88c4fa0cbff
doi = 10.1016/S1361-9209(02)00013-5 | accessdate = 2008-04-08]

However, the total number of passenger kilometres is growing at a faster rate than manufacturers can reduce emissions, and at present there is no readily available alternative to burning kerosene. The growth in the aviation sector is therefore likely to continue to generate an increasing volume of greenhouse gas emissions. However some scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use in jet aircraft. cite web|url = http://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2008/02/24/biofuel-flight.html|title = Airline flies jumbo jet powered by biofuel|accessdate = 2008-02-24|last = CBC News|authorlink = |year = 2008|month = February] As part of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways flew a Boeing 747 from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil. Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the flight was "high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and a large increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

The majority of the world's aircraft are not large jetliners but smaller piston aircraft, and many are capable of using ethanol as a fuel, with major modifications. cite web|url = http://www.age85.org/ActiveProjects.htm|title = Active Projects|accessdate = 2008-02-19|last = South Dakota State University |authorlink = |year = 2006] While ethanol also releases CO₂ during combustion, the plants cultivated to make it draw that same CO₂ out of the atmosphere while they are growing, making the fuel closer to climate-change-neutral. The main problems with burning ethanol as a fuel are that it takes more energy to produce than is returned, it displaces food crops and thus raises the price of food and causes soil degradation. cite web|url = http://www.igreens.org.uk/ethanol_from_corn_.htm|title = Ethanol from corn: burning money and oil|accessdate = 2008-02-19|last = Thornton|first = Jim|authorlink = |year = 2004|month = January] cite web|url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/03/050329132436.htm|title = Study: Ethanol Production Consumes Six Units Of Energy To Produce Just One|accessdate = 2008-02-19|last = Science Daily|authorlink = |year = 2005|month = April]

While they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic flights, turboprop aircraft used for commuter flights bring two significant benefits: they often burn considerably less fuel per passenger mile, and they typically fly at lower altitudes, well inside the tropopause, where there are no concerns about ozone or contrail production. For even shorter flights, air taxi service using newer, fuel-efficient four- or six-seat light piston aircraft could provide an even lower environmental impact.Fact|date=December 2007

Reducing travel

An alternative method for reducing the environmental impact of aviation is to constrain demand for air travel. The UK study "Predict and Decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy", notes that a 10 per cent increase in fares generates a 5 to 15 per cent reduction in demand, and recommends that the British government should manage demand rather than provide for it. [ cite web|url = http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/predictanddecide.pdf|title = Predict and decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy|accessdate = 2008-05-31|last = Cairns|first = Dr Sally & Carey Newson et al|authorlink = |year = 2006|month = September|pages = p. 96, section 11.9] This would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes "… against the expansion of UK airport capacity" and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively. [ cite web|url = http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/predictanddecide.pdf|title = Predict and decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy|accessdate = 2008-05-31|last = Cairns|first = Dr Sally & Carey Newson et al|authorlink = |year = 2006|month = September|pages = p. 4] A study published by the campaign group Aviation Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by levying £9 billion of additional taxes the annual rate of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would be reduced to 2 per cent. [cite web |url= http://www.aef.org.uk/downloads/HiddenCost.pdf |format=PDF |first= Brendon|last= Sewill|title=The Hidden Cost of Flying|accessdate=2007-10-18 |publisher= Aviation Environment Federation |date= February 2003|pages= pp. 19–20] The ninth report of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee, published in July 2006, recommends that the British government rethinks its airport expansion policy and considers ways, particularly via increased taxation, in which future demand can be managed in line with industry performance in achieving fuel efficiencies, so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms. [cite web |url= http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmenvaud/981/98108.htm|title= "Select Committee on Environmental Audit Ninth Report"|accessdate=2007-11-12 |publisher= British House of Commons |date= 19 July 2006| pages= paras. 112, 118–125, 113–114 & 126–133]

Kyoto Protocol

Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast to those from domestic aviation and from energy use by airports, are not assigned under the first round of the Kyoto Protocol, neither are the non-CO₂ climate effects. In place of agreement, Governments agreed to work through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to limit or reduce emissions and to find a solution to the allocation of emissions from international aviation in time for the second round of Kyoto in 2007.Fact|date=December 2007

Emissions trading

As part of that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an open emissions trading system to meet CO₂ emissions reduction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and implementation of a global scheme are currently being developed, and will be presented to the ICAO Assembly in 2007, [ [http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_m.pl?icao/en/nr/2005 ICAO news release 30 November 2005] "ICAO is also considering market-based options to address engine emissions through the participation of aviation in emissions trading schemes and the use of emissions levies related to local air quality. Guidelines for Contracting States wishing to implement such measures are being formulated and should be completed in time for the next regular Session of the ICAO Assembly in the Fall of 2007, when direction for future action will be set." ] although the prospects of a comprehensive inter-governmental agreement on the adoption of such a scheme are uncertain.

Within the European Union, however, the European Commission has resolved to incorporate aviation in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). [ European Commission, "Reducing the Climate Change Impact of Aviation" (2005)] ] The Commissions plans to make legislative proposals by the end of 2006, with a possible view to incorporating aviation into Phase II of the ETS from 2008. However, a number of design and implementation issues are yet to be resolved [ [http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/pdf/aviation_et_study.pdf#search=%22Giving%20Wings%20to%20Emission%20Trading%22 C E Delft "Giving Wings to Emission Trading" Report for the European Commission, DG Environment No. ENV.C.2/ETU/2004/0074r (2005)] ] and some within the airline industry have expressed doubts about whether this deadline can be achieved. [ [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmenvaud/uc981-vi/uc98102.htm Oral evidence to the UK House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee enquiry "Reducing Carbon Emissions from Transport" (2006)] Dr Andrew Sentence, Chief Economist and Head of Environmental Affairs, British Airways "We have made a lot of progress in getting emissions trading on the agenda for aviation. It is now being actively supported by the European Commission which is developing a proposal which will be put forward later this year. While it may not be possible to hit the deadline of 2008 for the second phase of emissions trading in Europe, hopefully something will be in place in Europe not long after that."]

Noise

Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental issues are increased traffic at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller and regional airports. [ cite web|url = http://www.nonoise.org/resource/trans/air/airport.htm|title = Aviation Noise|accessdate = 2007-12-29|last = Noise Pollution Clearinghouse|authorlink = |year = undated]

Air quality

ee also

*Aviation noise
*Contrails in climate
*Electric aircraft
*Flying Matters, a pro-aviation coalition in the United Kingdom
*Air transport and the environment (United Kingdom)
*Aviation Environment Federation, a UK focused non-violent direct action group
*Climate change
*Global warming

References

External links

* [http://www.partner.aero/ Partnership for AiR Transportation Noise and Emissions Reduction]
* [http://www.enviro.aero/ Commercial aviation industry environmental initiatives]
* [http://www.aef.org.uk/ Aviation Environment Federation]
* [http://www.airportwatch.org.uk/ AirportWatch]
* [http://www.flightpledge.org.uk/ Flight Pledge]
* [http://www.greenskies.org/ GreenSkies Alliance]
* [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/travel/story/0,,1697190,00.html Observer article on people choosing not to fly]
* [http://knowledge.allianz.com/en/globalissues/climate_change/climate_solutions/aviation_emissions_reduction.html Efficient Aviation: The Sky’s the Limit] Eight ways to cut fuel consumption, Allianz Knowledge, June 2008
* [http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/45232/story.htm EU Parliament to Tighten Airline Emissions Rules]
* [http://www.enviro.aero Air Transport Industry discussion on climate change]
* [http://www.cate.mmu.ac.uk/index.asp?chg=home Centre for Air Transport and the Environment]
* [http://www.sustainableaviation.co.uk Sustainable Aviation]
* [http://www.atag.org/content/default.asp Air Transport Action Group] * [http://www.transportenvironment.org European Federation for Transport and Environment (T&E) 'Clearing the Air: The Myth and Reality of Aviation and Climate Change']
* [http://www.greenskies.org/ GreenSkies Alliance]
* [http://www.cheap-parking.net/flight-carbon-emissions.php Flight Emission Calculator]