Sociological and cultural aspects of Tourette syndrome

There are sociological and cultural aspects of living with Tourette syndrome (also Tourette's syndrome, Tourette's or TS), including legal, advocacy and health insurance issues, awareness of notable individuals with Tourette syndrome, and treatment of TS in the media and popular culture.

Tourette syndrome is an inherited neurological disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by the presence of motor and phonic tics. Behavenet. [http://web.archive.org/web/20050310121149/http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/touretteTR.htm Tourette's disorder] . Retrieved on 2005-03-10.] Tourette's is a misunderstood and stigmatizing condition, often mentioned in the popular media. Tourette syndrome was once considered a rare and bizarre syndrome. It is no longer considered rare, but is often undetected because of the wide range of severity, with most cases classified as mild.Scahill L, Williams S, Schwab-Stone M, Applegate J, Leckman JF. Disruptive behavior problems in a community sample of children with tic disorders. "Adv Neurol." 2006;99:184-90. PMID 16536365] Tourette's is defined as part of a spectrum of tic disorders, which includes transient and chronic tics.Black, KJ. [http://www.emedicine.com/neuro/topic664.htm Tourette Syndrome and Other Tic Disorders.] "eMedicine" (March 22, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-06-27.] [Evidente, GH. [http://www.postgradmed.com/issues/2000/10_00/evidente_tic.htm "Is it a tic or Tourette's? Clues for differentiating simple from more complex tic disorders."] "PostGraduate Medicine Online." October 2000 108:5. Retrieved on 28 October 2006.] With increased knowledge of the full range of severity of Tourette syndrome—including milder cases—it has shifted from a condition only recognized in its most severe and impairing forms, to one recognized as a condition which is often mild, and which may be associated with some advantages and some disadvantages.

Legal and insurance issues

There is no reason to suspect that persons with Tourette's have diminished capacity with respect to consent to treatment, participation in research, or making a will. However, support from experienced advocates can be helpful in pursuing legal rights under US federal legislation which protects some rights of individuals with TS: examples include the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Legal and other advocacy information regarding the challenges of living with TS can be found on the website of the Tourette Syndrome Association. [ [http://www.tsa-usa.org/People/LivingWithTS/LivingTS.htm Living with TS:Adult Challenges] . Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 2007-01-04.]

A review of all cases tried in state and federal courts between 1985 and 2003 (civil rights, criminal, education, family, labor, and social security) found that TS was implicated in a minuscule number of cases nationwide: only about 150 cases, 21 of which were criminal, over 18 years. The authors concluded that Tourette syndrome "rarely leads to criminal behavior, but patients with TS who have behavioral comorbidities are at risk of being involved with the legal system". [Jankovic J, Kwak C, Frankoff R. Tourette's syndrome and the law. "J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci." 2006 Winter;18(1):86–95. PMID 16525075]

People diagnosed with Tourette syndrome may have difficulty obtaining new health insurance, or reimbursement for health care under their existing insurance plans, [ [http://www.tsa-usa.org/Medical/healthinsurance.html Health Insurance.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 2007-01-04.] in spite of overall excellent health. [Leckman & Cohen (1999), p. 406.] The diagnostic process should consider the insurance ramifications. [Waltz, Mitzi. [http://www.tsa-usa.org/People/LivingWithTS/Insurance.htm Health Insurance Issues for persons with Tourette Syndrome.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 2007-01-04.] If a diagnosis is not needed for school or medication processes, some families may choose to forgo a formal, written diagnosis.

Latent advantages

Discussions with adults who have Tourette syndrome reveal that not everyone wants treatment or a "cure", especially if that means they may "lose" something else in the process. Some believe that there may even be latent advantages associated with the genetic vulnerability. [Leckman JF, Cohen DJ. [http://web.archive.org/web/20050303223505/http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/tsocd/tsbook.htm "Tourette's Syndrome—Tics, Obsessions, Compulsions: Developmental Psychopathology and Clinical Care."] John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1999, p. 408.] Research supports some advantages associated with Tourette syndrome.

A controlled study on a small (13) group of individuals with TS found that cognitive control may be enhanced in young people with Tourette's because the need to suppress tics results in more efficient control of inhibitions. [Mueller SC, Jackson, GM, et al. Enhanced Cognitive Control in Young People with Tourette's Syndrome. "Current Biology". 2006 Mar 21;16(6):570-3. PMID 16546080] A subsequent study confirmed and extended the paradoxical result that individuals with Tourette's exhibit greater levels of cognitive control than age-matched healthy peers. [Jackson GM, Mueller SC, Hambleton K, Hollis CP. Enhanced cognitive control in Tourette Syndrome during task uncertainty. "Exp Brain Res." 2007 Jun 14; PMID 17569034 DOI|10.1007/s00221-007-0999-8] There is some evidence to support the clinical lore that children with "TS-only" (Tourette syndrome in the absence of other comorbid conditions) are unusually gifted: neuropsychological studies have identified advantages in children with TS-only. A study of full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ) testing showed that children with TS-only had higher IQ scores, relative to their parents, than predicted by statistical models.Denckla MB. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the childhood co-morbidity that most influences the disability burden in Tourette syndrome. "Adv Neurol." 2006;99:17–21. PMID 16536349] [Schuerholz LJ, Baumgardner TL, Singer HS, et al. Neuropsychological status of children with Tourette's syndrome with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. "Neurology." 1996 Apr;46(4):958-65. PMID 8780072] Another neurological examination of motor function found that 76% of children with TS-only were faster than average on timed motor coordination, [Schuerholz LJ, Cutting L, Mazzocco MM, et al. Neuromotor functioning in children with Tourette syndrome with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. "J Child Neurol." 1997 Oct;12(7):438-42. PMID 9373800] although similar results were not found among children with TS who also had ADHD.Denckla MB. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: the childhood co-morbidity that most influences the disability burden in Tourette syndrome. "Adv Neurol." 2006;99:17–21. PMID 16536349] In a study of eight children, ages 8–17, those with Tourette syndrome were found to be much quicker at processing certain mental grammar skills than children without the condition. The abnormalities that lead to tics may also lead to "other rapid behaviors, including the cognitive processing of rule-governed forms in language and other types of procedural knowledge". [Walenski M, Mostofsky SH, Ullman MT. Speeded processing of grammar and tool knowledge in Tourette's syndrome. "Neuropsychologia" 2007;45(11):2447–2460. DOI|10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.04.001] The investigator, Michael Ullman, PhD, said, "These children were particularly fast, as well as largely accurate, in certain language tasks. This tells us that their cognitive processing may be altered in ways we have only begun to explore, and moreover in a manner that may provide them with performance that is actually enhanced compared [to] that of typically-developing children". [cite press release| title = Research Finds Faster Grammar Skills in Children with Tourette’s | url = http://www.webwire.com/ViewPressRel.asp?aId=42244 | date = 2007-07-13 | publisher = Georgetown University Medical Center | accessdate = 2007-07-29]

Notable individuals

There are many individuals with Tourette's, living and deceased, recognized in their fields, or for whom obsessive-compulsive tendencies associated with Tourette's may have helped fuel their success.

Samuel Johnson

An example of a person who may have used obsessive-compulsive traits to advantage is Dr Samuel Johnson, lexicographer, who had Tourette syndrome as evidenced by the writings of James Boswell. [ [http://web.archive.org/web/20050210205714/http://www.tsa-usa.org/what_is/johnson.html Samuel Johnson.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 2005-02-10.] Johnson wrote "A Dictionary of the English Language" in 1747, and was a prolific writer, poet, and critic. The "case of Dr Johnson accords well with current criteria for the Tourette syndrome; he also displayed many of the obsessional-compulsive traits and rituals which are associated with this syndrome".Pearce JM. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1294650&blobtype=pdf Doctor Samuel Johnson: 'the great convulsionary' a victim of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome] (PDF). "J R Soc Med". 1994 Jul;87(7):396–9. PMID 8046726.]

According to Boswell,

... while talking or even musing as he sat in his chair, he commonly held his head to one side towards his right shoulder, and shoot it in a tremulous manner, moving his body backwards and forwards, and rubbing his left knee in the same direction, with the palm of his hand. In the intervals of articulating he made various sounds with his mouth; sometimes giving a half whistle, sometimes making his tongue play backwards from the roof of his mouth, as if chucking like a hen, and sometimes protruding it against his upper gums in front, as if pronouncing quickly under his breathe, 'Too, too, too.' All this accompanied sometimes with a thoughtful look, but more frequently with a smile. Generally when he had concluded a period, in the course of a dispute, by which time he was a good deal exhausted by violence and vociferation, he used to blow out his breath like a whale.cite book |last=Hibbert |first=Christopher |authorlink=Christopher Hibbert |title=The Personal History of Samuel Johnson |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1971 |isbn=0060118792|page= p. 203]

There are many similar accounts; in particular, Johnson was said to act in such a manner at the thresholds of doors, and Frances Reynolds—younger sister of artist Joshua Reynolds—said that, "with poor Mrs Williams, a blind lady who lived with him, he would quit her hand, or else whirl her about on the steps as he whirled and twisted about to perform his gesticulations". [Hibbert 1971, p. 202.] When asked by English poet Christopher Smart's niece, a young child at the time, why he made such noises and acted in that way, Johnson responded: "From bad habit."

Johnson had a number of tics and other involuntary movements.Murray TJ. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1599158&blobtype=pdf Dr Samuel Johnson's Movement Disorder] (PDF). "British Medical Journal" 1979 June;(1)6178:1610–14. PMID 380753. Retrieved on July 10, 2008.] In 1994, Pearce analysed the details provided by Boswell and others; based on the anecdotal evidence, Pearce compiled a list of movements and tics which Johnson was said to have demonstrated. From that list, he determined it was possible that Johnson had Tourette syndrome.

Pearce was not alone in diagnosing Johnson as having Tourette syndrome; in 1967 McHenry Jr [McHenry LC Jr. Samuel Johnson's tics and gesticulations. "Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences" 1967 April; (22)2:152–68. PMID 5341871] was the first to diagnosis Johnson with the syndrome. [cite book |last= Wiltshire |first= John |title= Samuel Johnson in the Medical World |year=1991 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521383269|page=p. 29 ] It was not until Arthur K. Shapiro's "Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome" that the diagnosis was made clear, with Shapiro declaring, "Samuel Johnson ... is the most notable example of a successful adaptation to life despite the liability of Tourette syndrome". [cite book |last=Shapiro |first=Arthur K. |authorlink=Arthur K. Shapiro |title=Gilles de la Tourette syndrome |year=1978 |publisher=Raven Press|location=New York |isbn=0890040575|page = p. 361] Murray had come to the same conclusion in a 1979 "British Medical Journal" paper. Murray based his diagnosis on various accounts of Johnson displaying physical tics, "involuntary vocalisations" and "compulsive behaviour".

In a 2007 analysis, Kammer discussed the "documented evidence" of Johnson's tics, saying that Johnson was "known to have suffered from TS".Kammer T. [http://www.uni-ulm.de/~tkammer/pdf/Kammer_2007_Mozart_preprint.pdf "Mozart in the neurological department—who has the tic?"] (PDF). "Front Neurol Neurosci." 2007;22:184–92. PMID 17495512 DOI|10.1159/0000102880 Retrieved on September 10, 2007] According to neurologist Oliver Sacks, "the case for Samuel Johnson having the syndrome, though [...] circumstantial, is extremely strong and, to my mind, entirely convincing".Sacks O. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1884721&blobtype=pdf Tourette's Syndrome and Creativity: Exploiting the Ticcy Witticisms and Witty Ticcicisms] (PDF). "British Medical Journal" 1992 Dec;(305)6868:1515–16. PMID 1286364. Retrieved on July 24, 2008] He continues by generally describing the "enormous spontaneity, antics, and lightning quick wit" that featured prominently in Johnson's life. However, Pearce goes further into Johnson's biography and traces particular moments in Johnson's life which reinforced his diagnosis, concluding:

It is not without interest that periodic boundless mental energy, imaginative outbursts of inventiveness and creativity, are, characteristic of certain Tourette patients. It may be thought that without this illness Dr Johnson's remarkable literary achievements, the great dictionary, his philosophical deliberations and his conversations may never have happened; and Boswell, the author of the greatest of biographies would have been unknown.

Other speculative posthumous diagnoses of TS, for example Mozart, are not "... as entirely convincing ... [as] the case for Samuel Johnson having TS ...". [ [http://web.archive.org/web/20050407060420/http://www.tsa-usa.org/what_is/Mozart.html Did Mozart really have TS?] and [http://web.archive.org/web/20050407083830/http://www.tsa-usa.org/what_is/johnson.html Samuel Johnson.] Tourette Syndrome Association, Archived version of 7 April 2005. Also Sacks O. (1992), "Tourette's syndrome and creativity". "British Medical Journal." 305(6868):1515–6. PMID 1286364]

Others

André Malraux, the French author, adventurer and statesman, also is thought to have had Tourette syndrome. [ [http://www.tourette.ca/whatists.php What is TS.] Tourette Syndrome Foundation of Canada. Retrieved on 2008-08-25.] [Todd, Olivier. "Malraux: A Life." Knopf, 2005.] [ Guidotti TL. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1289723&blobtype=pdf André Malraux: a medical interpretation] (PDF). "J R Soc Med". 1985 May;78(5):401–6. PMID 3886907 ] Howard Ahmanson, Jr, an American millionaire philanthropist who funds Christian causes, has Tourette's. [Doward, J. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1431557,00.html Anti-gay millionaire bankrolls Caravaggio spectacular.] "The Observer." March 6, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-11-23.] Brad Cohen is an award-winning teacher and author. [VanderWyk & Burnham Authors. [http://www.vandb.com/authorcohen.html Brad Cohen] . Retrieved on 2006-06-10.] [ [http://www.tsa-usa.org/news/FrontoftheClass.htm Front of the Class wins independent publisher award.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 3 June 2006.]

Recognized athletes and figures in the sports world diagnosed with Tourette syndrome include Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf (formerly Chris Jackson), a former NBA player; [Wall, James M. "Prayer time: Abdul-Rauf takes a stand." "Christian Century. " April 10, 1996. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n12_v113/ai_18188255 Find Articles,] Retrieved on 2007-11-23.] Eric Bernotas, a three-time U.S. skeleton champion who made his Olympics debut in 2006; [ [http://www.nbcolympics.com/athletes/5058693/detail.html?ib_oll=Headline Eric Bernotas.] NBCOlympics.com Profiles. Retrieved on 2006-02-20.] Jim Eisenreich, a former major league baseball player; [ [http://www.tourettes.org/ Jim Eisenreich Foundation.] Retrieved on 2006-02-18.] Tim Howard, a goalkeeper for Everton F.C.; [ [http://www.tsa-usa.org/news/TimHowardPSA.htm Public Service Announcement for Tourette Syndrome awareness features soccer star Tim Howard.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 2007-01-04.] Mike Johnston, a relief pitcher formerly on the roster for the Pittsburgh Pirates; [ [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/team/player.jsp?player_id=430635 Mike Johnston.] Major League Baseball. Retrieved on 2006-02-18.] Jeremy Stenberg, a motocross rider nicknamed "Twitch"; [Brown, C.L. [http://www.courier-journal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050610/NEWS0104/506100377/0/SPORTS "Rider with Tourette's shows no fear on bike."] "The Courier-Journal." June 10, 2005.] and NASCAR Nationwide Series driver Steve Wallace, son of racing legend Rusty Wallace. [NASCAR.com (July 26, 2006). [http://www.nascar.com/2006/news/headlines/cup/07/26/kwallace.swallace.qa/index.html Q&A: Kenny Wallace/Steve Wallace.] Retrieved on July 31, 2006.]

Recognized musicians with Tourette syndrome include Jonas Altberg, a Swedish musician and disc jockey better known as Basshunter; [Mendoza, Nadia. [http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/music/article1426407.ece 'I was bullied for my Tourette's',] "The Sun" July 15, 2008. Retrieved on July 18, 2008.] Tobias Picker, a composer; [ [http://www.tsanj.org/tsanj/in-action/nl/docs/tsanj_nl6.pdf Mentoring program (PDF).] Tourette Syndrome Association of New Jersey, Inc., Spring/Summer 2000. Retrieved on 4 January 2007.] Nick Tatham, a singer/songwriter; [ [http://www.cdtimes.co.uk/content.php?contentid=636 Nick Tatham.] CD Times. Retrieved on 20 February 2006.] Nick van Bloss, a British classical pianist; [cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/health-news/nick-van-bloss-on-living-with-tourettes-syndrome-474639.html|title=Nick van Bloss on living with Tourette's syndrome|date=2006-04-18|work=The Independent|accessdate=2008-03-29] and Michael Wolff, a jazz musician. [ [http://www.tsa-usa.org/People/LivingWithTS/Images/FamPor_Fall98_MWolff.pdf Jazz musician Michael Wolff (PDF).] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 4 January 2007.] Author and neurologist Oliver Sacks describes the case of a drummer with TS, who uses his tics to give him a certain 'flair' or 'special sound' to his drumming. [Sacks O. "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat: And Other Clinical Tales". Touchstone, New York, 1998.]

Oliver Sacks uses the pseudonym Carl Bennett to describe real-life Canadian Mort Doran, M.D., a pilot and surgeon with severe TS, whose tics remit almost completely while he is performing surgery. [Doran, Morton L. The Tourette Syndrome Association, Inc., Connecticut Chapter 1998 Educators' Conference; November 6 1998; Danbury, CT.] [Sacks O. "An Anthropologist on Mars". Knopf, New York, 1995.] Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks had Tourette syndrome. [Booker, Jarrod. [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10415310&ref=rss South Pole scientist may have been poisoned.] "The New Zealand Herald" (December 14, 2006). Retrieved on December 19, 2006.]

peculation about notable individuals

Although some authors have speculated that Mozart had Tourette syndrome, [ [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2004/10/13/bmoz12.xml&sSheet=/arts/2004/10/13/ixartleft.html "I know what made Mozart tic".] "telegraph.co.uk" (October 13, 2004). Retrieved on December 15, 2006.] the evidence for this hypothesis is lacking. [Ashoori A, Jankovic J. "Mozart's movements and behaviour: a case of Tourette's syndrome?" "J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry". 2007 Nov;78(11):1171–5 DOI|10.1136/jnnp.2007.114520 PMID 17940168.] Benjamin Simkin, a medical doctor, argues in his book "Medical and Musical Byways of Mozartiana" that Mozart had Tourette syndrome. Simkin, Benjamin. [http://www.danielpublishing.com/books/suppl/simkin.html Medical and Musical Byways of Mozartiana.] Fithian Press. Retrieved on 28 October 2006.] [Simkin B. Mozart's scatological disorder. "BMJ". 1992 Dec 19-26;305(6868):1563–7. PMID 1286388] Simkin is an endocrinologist—not a psychiatrist or a neurologist, the medical fields which specialize in the neurological disorder. His claim was picked up by newspapers worldwide, causing an international sensation, and internet websites have fueled the speculation. [http://web.archive.org/web/20020814021030/http://www.tsa-usa.org/what_is/Mozart.html Did Mozart really have TS?] Tourette Syndrome Association Retrieved on 14 August 2002.] Letters Mozart wrote to his cousin Maria Anna Thekla ("Bäsle") between 1777 and 1781 contain scatological language; he wrote canons titled "Leck mich im Arsch" ("Lick my arse") or variations thereof (including the pseudo-Latin "Difficile lectu mihi mars"). While the term "Leck mich am Arsch", when literally translated, conjures up images of sexual practices, the more accurate English meaning of this phrase is simply "Kiss my ass". The additional phrase "... recht fein schön sauber", while colorful, is still only an emphasis: that is to say, "Kiss my ass real good!". The use of this written language alone is not necessarily indicative of coprolalia, a rare symptom present in a minority of people with TS, and there are cultural explanations for Mozart's use of language. The German phrase was popularized by the Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) drama about the historical figure of Götz von Berlichingen. Coprolalia encompasses words and phrases that are culturally taboo or generally unsuitable for acceptable social use; it is usually expressed out of social or emotional context, and may be spoken in a louder tone or different cadence or pitch than normal conversation. The phrases uttered by a person with coprolalia do not necessarily reflect the thoughts or opinions of the person, and are embarrassing to the person uttering them.Cohen, J.E. and Levi-Pearl, S. Understanding Coprolalia - A misunderstood symptom. Available from the [http://store.tsa-usa.org/for-families--general-interest--professionals.html Tourette Syndrome Association,] Retrieved on 30 October 2006.]

A German psychiatrist examined the question of Mozart's diagnoses and concluded that "Tourette’s syndrome is an inventive but implausible diagnosis in the medical history of Mozart". Evidence of motor tics was found lacking and the notion that involuntary vocal tics are transferred to the written form was labeled "problematic". Neurologist and author Oliver Sacks published an editorial disputing Simkin's claim, [Sacks O. Tourette's syndrome and creativity. "BMJ." 1992 Dec 19-26;305(6868):1515–6. PMID 1286364] and the Tourette Syndrome Association pointed out the speculative nature of this information. No Tourette's syndrome expert or organization has voiced concurrence that there is credible evidence to conclude that Mozart had Tourette's. [cite journal |author=Ashoori A, Jankovic J |title=Mozart's movements and behaviour: a case of Tourette's syndrome? |journal=J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. |volume=78 |issue=11 |pages=1171–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17940168 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.2007.114520] One TS specialist stated that, "although some web sites list Mozart as an individual who had Tourette's and/or OCD, it's not clear from the descriptions of his behavior that he actually had either." [Packer, L. [http://www.schoolbehavior.com/inspiration.htm Famous People with Tourette's syndrome and/or Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.] SchoolBehavior.com. Retrieved on May 20, 2006.]

Comedian Dan Aykroyd described himself (in a radio interview with Terry Gross [http://www.npr.org/dmg/dmg.php?prgCode=FA&showDate=22-Nov-2004&segNum=1&NPRMediaPref=WM&getAd=1 Fresh Air, NPR, Media Player file] Retrieved on 20 February 2006.] ) as having mild Tourette syndrome that was successfully treated with therapy when he was a preteen, as well as mild Asperger syndrome. [ [http://www.dr-bob.org/babble/psycho/20041113/msgs/419044.html Aykroyd, Terry Gross interview excerpt.] Retrieved on 20 February 2006.] The diagnosis of Asperger syndrome was not recognized in the 1960s, when Aykroyd was a preteen. The term was coined in 1981, and became a recognized diagnosis in the 1994 DSM. Tics can be caused by other disorders, including autism spectrum disorders such as Asperger's. [ Mejia NI, Jankovic J. Secondary tics and tourettism. "Rev Bras Psiquiatr". 2005;27(1):11-7. PMID 15867978] It is unclear if Aykroyd received the diagnoses of TS or AS from a medical source, whether he was speaking in his role as a comic, or whether the diagnoses were self-made. It was an audio interview, so the audience could not see Aykroyd's facial expressions, but the interviewer indicated uncertainty about whether Aykroyd was kidding.

References in the entertainment industry

By sensationalizing the symptoms of Tourette's, the video media—notably the Internet, movies and television—are overwhelmingly responsible for warped perceptions about people with Tourette's, according to the "Cincinnati Enquirer".Holtgren, Bruce. "Truth about Tourette's not what you think." "Cincinnati Enquirer", January 11, 2006. Retrieved on 16 January 2006.]

A movie released on video, "The Tic Code," stars Gregory Hines as a saxophone player with TS who befriends a 10-year-old boy with TS. It was written by Polly Draper, and produced with her husband, jazz musician Michael Wolff, who has Tourette's and on whose life the script was loosely based. [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0165986/ The Tic Code.] IMDb. Retrieved on 9 May 2006. ] The UK movie, "Dirty Filthy Love", tells the story of Mark Furness (Michael Sheen) with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and Tourette's. [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0411291/ Dirty Filthy Love.] IMDb. Retrieved on 9 May 2006. ] A protagonist with Tourette's is presented in Jonathan Lethem's award-winning detective novel, Motherless Brooklyn.

The entertainment industry often depicts those with TS as being social misfits whose only tic is coprolalia, which has furthered stigmatization and the general public's misunderstanding of persons with Tourette's. The symptoms of Tourette syndrome are fodder for radio and television talk shows. Some talk shows (for example, "Oprah") have focused on accurate portrayals of people with Tourette's, while others (for example; "Dr. Phil") have furthered stigmatization, focusing on rare and sensational aspects of the condition. [ [http://www.tsa-usa.org/news/DrPhil.htm Letter of response to Dr. Phil.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 8 May 2006.] An incident of disinformation about coprolalia and Tourette's involved Dr. Laura Schlessinger; according to the Tourette Syndrome Association, she berated a caller inquiring whether a child with Tourette's should attend a family wedding, declaring that a majority of those with the condition exhibited coprolalia and should be excluded from many social situations, provoking an avalanche of angry calls about the misinformation. [ [http://web.archive.org/web/20011006192716/http://tsa-usa.org/drlaura.html Oprah and Dr. Laura - Conflicting Messages on Tourette Syndrome. Oprah Educates; Dr. Laura Fosters Myth of TS as "Cursing Disorder".] Tourette Syndrome Association, (May 31, 2001). Retrieved on 6 October 2001.] Garrison Keillor, radio show host of NPR's "A Prairie Home Companion", produced a segment in 2006, titled "Broadway Tourette's", about segregating people with stereotypical Tourette's from other passengers on a cruise ship, prompting a press release from the Tourette Syndrome Association. [ [http://tsa-usa.org/news/Garrison-Keillor.htm Letter of response to Garrison Keillor radio show.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 8 May 2006.]

Many television shows have addressed the topic of Tourette's, but few have advanced understanding of Tourette's. A 1981 episode of the television show, "Quincy, M.E.," "Seldom Silent, Never Heard", [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0681828/ Quincy: "Seldom Silent, Never Heard"] , ImDB.com. Retrieved on 28 May 2008] .] was a seminal moment in the history of Tourette's. It was perhaps the first television representation of Tourette's syndrome, and its portrayal led to many undiagnosed people with tics recognizing their symptoms and getting a correct diagnosis. [ [http://www.tv.com/quincy-m.e./show/579/episode_guide.html&season=6 Seldom Silent, Never Heard.] TV.com. Retrieved on 8 May 2006. ] Other television shows which helped advance accurate information about Tourette's include "L.A. Law", "The Practice" and "7th Heaven".

However, even more television and film productions are not accurate representations of persons with Tourette's, and many of them have used misconceptions about coprolalia as a plot device, or portrayed people with Tourette's as being dangerously out of control. For example, in an episode of "Ally McBeal", Anne Heche portrays a woman with Tourette's who gets a sudden leg tic that causes her to run over and kill her boyfriend. An episode of "Touched by an Angel", "An Angel on my Tree", was about a father who committed manslaughter in an angry "rage" reaction to an event that involved his son who had Tourette's. In an episode of "The Simpsons", Mrs. Krabappel is recounting all the diseases and illnesses Bart has claimed to have to excuse himself from a test. She says, "and that unfortunate case of Tourette's Syndrome", and Bart tries to pretend he still might have it by cursing and rambling. (Due to viewer complaints, subsequent airings omitted Bart's cursing or replaced the Tourette's mention with rabies.) A "South Park" episode, "Le Petit Tourette", also used Tourette's as fodder for comedy; character Eric Cartman fakes the condition in order to justify his foul mouth. The episode received a mixed reaction from the Tourette Syndrome Association, which commented that it provided useful information while at the same time perpetuating outright myths about coprolalia and Tourette syndrome. [http://www.tsa-usa.org/news/1007ConcernSouthPark.html TSA Voices Concern Over "South Park" October 3rd Episode.] Tourette Syndrome Association (2007-10-02). Retrieved on 2007-10-03.] [http://www.tsa-usa.org/news/1007responseTSA_SouthParkTourettes.html TSA responds to "South Park" Episode.] Tourette Syndrome Association (2007-10-04). Retrieved on 2007-10-04.] The British comedic drama "Shameless" features Marty Fisher, a character with Tourette syndrome who is also an arsonist. [ [http://www.jamesmcavoy.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=100 Shameless bid to translate success to US screens.] Jamesmcacoy.com, Retrieved on May 15 2007.] Other examples are "The Big White", "The Boondock Saints", "Curb Your Enthusiasm", "", "Maze", "Niagara, Niagara", [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119780/ Niagara, Niagara.] IMDb. Retrieved on 30 August 2007. ] "Not Another Teen Movie", "Wedding Crashers", "The Wedding Singer", "The West Wing" and "What About Bob". In "Matchstick Men", the protagonist (Nicolas Cage) is a neurotic con artist with Tourette's and OCD. [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0325805/ Matchstick Men.] IMDb. Retrieved on 9 May 2006. ]

Several documentaries have attemptedGuldberg, Helene. [http://www.spiked-online.com/index.php?/site/article/321/ Stop celebrating Tourette's.] "Spiked", May 26 2006. Retrieved on 2 December 2006.] to portray Tourette's syndrome accurately and to advocate for greater understanding of persons with Tourette's, while others focus on sensationalizing coprolalia. The Emmy Award-winning television documentary film "I Have Tourette's But Tourette's Doesn't Have Me" was produced by HBO in conjunction with the Tourette Syndrome Association, featuring children between the ages of six and 13; [ [http://www.tsa-usa.org/news/Emmy_2006_I_HaveTourette.htm "I Have Tourette's But Tourette's Doesn't Have Me" Wins an Emmy.] Tourette Syndrome Association. Retrieved on 4 January 2007.] it was described by the "Cincinnati Enquirer" as "the best simple overview yet of Tourette's". "John's Not Mad" (1989) and "The Boy Can't Help It" (2000) are documentaries about a boy from Scotland, who has severe Tourette's and coprolalia. [ [http://www.dvdtimes.co.uk/content.php?contentid=10423 John's Not Mad.] DVD Times. Retrieved on 9 May 2006. ] "Twitch and Shout" examines a society that is quick to judge a person who strays outside the limits of conventional behavior and was nominated for an Emmy. [ [http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov1995/twitchandshout/twitchandshout_press.pdf Twitch and Shout Press Release (PDF).] PBS. Retrieved on 8 May 2006. ] A 2007 British documentary, "Tourette De France", followed a group of teenagers with Tourette's on a trip to Paris; [ [http://www.channel4.com/health/microsites/0-9/4health/mind/wwr_tourettes.html Tourette de France.] Channel 4.com (July 2003). Retrieved on January 12, 2007.] many of the teenagers featured in the program had coprolalia; [Dowell, Ben. "The Swearbox". "Sunday Mirror", October 29, 2006. Available at [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4161/is_20061029/ai_n16811923 FindArticles.com,] Retrieved on January 13, 2007.] "Movements and Madness:Part 1-Gusti Ayu" is a documentary about the struggles of a young woman with severe Tourette's in a small village in Indonesia. [ [http://www.lemyngfilms.com/normal_films.html Movements & Madness: a young woman's struggle with an illness no one believed in.] LemYng Films. Retrieved on May 15 2007. ]

Singer Pete Bennett, the winner of the 2006 edition of British TV reality show, Big Brother 7, has Tourette syndrome. [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/5265412.stm Profile: Big Brother winner Pete Bennett.] "BBC News" (August 18, 2006).] The show has been accused of exploiting Pete's Tourette's syndrome; the TSA UK "claimed the broadcaster had deliberately cast someone with relatively strong symptoms in order to make him a 'figure of fun'," [ Born, Matt. [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/showbiz/bigbrother.html?in_article_id=387012&in_page_id=1815 Tourette's man 'exploited by Big Brother'.] Retrieved on 22 May 2006.] and the British Psychological Society (BPS) expressed concern and the possibility that BPS members involved in the series could face censure. [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5281684.stm Psychologists voice Brother worry.] "BBC News" (August 24, 2006).] His condition was reported to have been aggravated by drug use. [Parr, Charlotte. [http://iccroydon.icnetwork.co.uk/news/showbiz/tm_objectid=17112988&method=full&siteid=50102&headline=bbundefineds-tourette-lad-has-undefinedfried-his-mindundefined-name_page.html BB's Tourette lad has "fried his mind".] Retrieved on 22 May 2006.] Some viewers expressed concern that the show had exploited Tourette's, while others felt it was educational. [Allen, Liam. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/5259916.stm BB Pete: Exploitation or education?] "BBC News" (August 18, 2006).]

References in the music industry

The Manic Street Preachers recorded a song on the "Gold Against The Soul" album titled "Symphony Of Tourette". Nirvana recorded a song on the "In Utero" album titled "tourette's" (uncapitalized). After disbanding Jokke & Valentinerne, Norwegian rock-musician Joachim Nielsen played with a backing-band called "The Tourettes". A musical about Tourette's, "In My Life", opened on Broadway in October, 2005 and closed quickly to poor reviews. [ [http://www.ibdb.com/production.asp?ID=397825 In My Life.] Internet Broadway Database, Retrieved on 30 October 2006.] [Brantley, Ben. "Where an Angel Fearlessly Treads." New York Times, October 21, 2005.]

Notes

External links

* [http://www.tsa-usa.org/People/LivingWithTS/LivingTS.htm Living with Tourette syndrome: Adult challenges] - Tourette Syndrome Association (TSA)
* [http://www.tourette.ca/adults.php Tourette Syndrome in Adult Life] - Tourette Syndrome Foundation of Canada