Romanian alphabet

Romanian alphabet

The Romanian alphabet is a modification of the Latin alphabet and consists of 31 letters:[1][2]

Letter Name
A, a a
Ă, ă ă
Â, â î / î din a
B, b be / bî
C, c ce / cî
D, d de / dî
E, e e
F, f ef / fe / fî
G, g ge / ghe / gî
H, h haș / ha / hî
I, i i
Letter Name
Î, î î / î din i
J, j je / jî
K, k ca / capa
L, l el / le / lî
M, m em / me / mî
N, n en / ne / nî
O, o o
P, p pe / pî
Q, q kü / chiu
R, r er / re / rî
S, s es / se / sî
Letter Name
Ș, ș / Ş, ş șe / şî
T, t te / tî
Ț, ț / Ţ, ţ țe / ţî
U, u u
V, v ve / vî
W, w dublu ve / dublu vî
X, x ics
Y, y igrec / i grec
Z, z ze / zet / zed / zî

The letters Q (read kü or chiu), W (dublu ve), and Y (igrec or i grec) were officially introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982, although they had been used earlier. They occur only in foreign words and their Romanian derivatives, such as quasar, watt, and yacht. The letter K, although relatively older, is also rarely used and appears only in proper names and international neologisms such as kilogram, broker, karate.[3] These four letters are still perceived as foreign, which explains their use for stylistic purposes in words such as nomenklatură (normally nomenclatură, meaning "nomenclature", but sometimes spelled with a k to mean the members of the Communist leadership in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries, like Nomenklatura is used in English).[4]

In cases where the word is a direct borrowing having diacritical marks not present in the above alphabet, official spelling tends to favor their use (München, Angoulême etc., as opposed to the use of Istanbul over İstanbul).

Contents

Letters and their pronunciation

See also: Romanian phonology

Romanian spelling is mostly phonetic. The table below gives the correspondence between letters and sounds. Some of the letters have several possible readings, even if allophones are not taken into account. When vowels /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/ are changed into their corresponding semivowels, this is not marked in writing. Letters K, Q, W, and Y appear only in foreign borrowings; the pronunciation of W and Y depends on the origin of the word they appear in.

Letter Phoneme Approximate pronunciation
A a /a/ a in "father"
Ă ă (a with breve) /ə/ a in "above"
 â (a with circumflex) /ɨ/ the close central unrounded vowel as heard, for example, in the last syllable of the word roses for some English speakers
B b /b/ b in "ball"
C c /k/ c in "scan"
/tʃ/ ch in "chimpanzee" — if c appears before letters e or i
D d /d/ d in "door"
E e /e/ e in "merry"
/e̯/ (semivocalic /e/)
/je/ ye in "yes" — in a few old words with initial e: este, el etc.[5]
F f /f/ f in "flag"
G g /ɡ/ g in "goat"
/dʒ/ g in "general" or "giraffe" — if g appears before letters e or i
H h /h/ h in "house"
(mute) no pronunciation if h appears between letters c or g and e or i (che, chi, ghe, ghi)
I i /i/ i in "machine"
/j/ y in "yes"
/ʲ/ (palatalization)
Î î (i with circumflex) /ɨ/ Identical to Â, see above
J j /ʒ/ s in "treasure"
K k /k/ c in "scan"
L l /l/ l in "lamp"
M m /m/ m in "mouth"
N n /n/ n in "north"
O o /o/ o in "floor"
/o̯/ (semivocalic /o/)
P p /p/ p in "spot"
Q q /k/ k in "kettle"
R r /r/ alveolar trill or tap
S s /s/ s in "song"
Ș ș (s with comma) * /ʃ/ s in "sugar"
T t /t/ t in "stone"
Ț ț (t with comma) * /ts/ zz in "pizza" but with considerable emphasis on the "ss"
U u /u/ u in "group"
/w/ w in "cow"
V v /v/ v in "vision"
W w /v/ v in "vision"
/w/ w in "west"
/u/ oo in "spoon"
X x /ks/ x in "six"
/ɡz/ x in "example"
Y y /j/ y in "yes"
/i/ i in "machine"
Z z /z/ z in "zipper"

* See Comma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ).

Special letters

Pre- (top) and post-1993 (bottom) street signs in Bucharest, showing the two different spellings of the same name

Romanian does not use accents. In the sense of diacritics as being signs added to letters to alter their pronunciation or to make distinction between words, the Romanian alphabet does not have diacritics. There are, however, five special letters in the Romanian alphabet (associated with four different sounds), formed by modifying other Latin letters; strictly speaking they are not diacritics, but are generally referred to as such.

The letter â is used exclusively in the middle of words; its majuscule version appears only in all-capitals inscriptions.

Writing letters ș and ț with a cedilla instead of a comma is considered incorrect by the Romanian Academy. Romanian writings, including books created to teach children to write, treat the comma and cedilla as a variation in font. See Unicode and HTML below.

Î versus Â

The letters î and â are phonetically and functionally identical. The reason for using both of them is historical, denoting the language's Latin origin.

For a few decades until a spelling reform in 1904, as many as four or five letters had been used for the same phoneme (â, ê, î, û, and occasionally ô), according to an etymological rule.[6] The 1904 reform saw only two letters remaining, â and î, the choice of which followed rules that changed several times during the 20th century.

During the first half of the century the rule was to use î in word-initial and word-final positions, and â everywhere else. There were exceptions, imposing the use of î in internal positions when words were combined or derived with prefixes or suffixes. For example the adjective urît "ugly" was written with î because it derives from the verb a urî "to hate".

In 1953, during the Communist regime, the Romanian Academy eliminated the letter â, replacing it with î everywhere, including the name of the country, which was to be spelled Romînia. The first stipulation coincided with the official designation of the country as a People's Republic, which meant that its full title was Republica Populară Romînă. A minor spelling reform in 1964 brought back the letter â, but only in the spelling of român "Romanian" and all its derivatives, including the name of the country. As such, the Socialist Republic proclaimed in 1965 is associated with the spelling Republica Socialistă România.

Soon after the fall of the Ceaușescu regime, the Romanian Academy decided to reintroduce â from 1993 onward, by canceling the effects of the 1953 spelling reform and essentially reverting to the 1904 rules (with some differences). The move was publicly justified as the rectification of a Soviet influence on the Romanian culture and as a return to a traditional spelling that bears the mark of the language's Latin origin.[citation needed] The political context at the time, however, was that the Romanian Academy was largely regarded as a Communist and corrupt institution — Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena had been its honored members, and membership had generally been granted on political grounds.[citation needed] The Academy instituted the 1993 spelling reform as a break with the Academy's Communist past.[citation needed] The national community of linguists as well as the foreign linguists specialized in Romanian vehemently opposed the spelling reform; their position was not taken into consideration.[citation needed]

According to the 1993 reform, the choice between î and â is thus again based on a rule that is neither etymological, nor phonological, but positional and morphological. The sound is always spelled as â, except at the beginning and the end of words, where î is to be used instead. Exceptions include proper nouns where the usage of the letters is frozen, whichever it may be, and compound words, whose components are each separately subjected to the rule (e.g. ne- + îndemânatic → neîndemânatic "clumsy", not *neândemânatic). However, the exception no longer applies to words derived with suffixes, in contrast with the 1904 norm; for instance what was spelled urît after 1904 became urât after 1993.

Although the reform was advertised as a means to show the Latin origin of Romanian, statistically only few of the words written with â according to the 1993 reform actually derive from Latin words having an a in the corresponding position.[7] Moreover, there are words that used to be closer in spelling to their Latin etymon before the 1993 reform than after; for example rîu "river", from the Latin rivus, became râu; the same is true for rîde < ridere, sîn < sinus, strînge < stringere, lumînare < luminaria, etc.

While the 1993 spelling norm is compulsory in the Romanian education and official publications, and gradually most other publications came to use it, there are still individuals, publications and publishing houses preferring the previous spelling norm or a mixed hybrid system of their own.[8] Among them is the weekly cultural magazine Dilema Veche, whereas some publications, such as România literară, magazine of the Writers' Union of Romania, and publishing houses such as Polirom allow authors to choose either spelling norm. Dictionaries, grammars and other linguistic works have also been published using the î and sînt long after the 1993 reform.[9]

Many modern English textbooks still insist on the spelling of "I am" as eu sînt, in spite of the modern spelling being eu sunt – the actual pronunciation of sunt in rapid speech remains obscure,[citation needed] although most speakers tend to use the sound of î.

Comma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ)

Although the Romanian Academy standard mandates the comma-below variants for the sounds /ʃ/ and /t͡s/, the cedilla variants are still widely used. Many printed and online texts still wrongfully use "s with cedilla" and "t with cedilla". This state of affairs is due to an initial lack of glyph standardization, compounded by the lack of computer font support for the comma-below variants (see the Unicode section for details).

The lack of support for the comma diacritics has been corrected in current versions of major operating systems: Windows Vista or newer, Linux distributions after 2005, currently supported MacOS versions. As mandated by the European Union, Microsoft released a font update to correct this deficiency in Windows XP in early 2007, soon after Romania joined the European Union.

Obsolete diacritics

Old Bucharest manhole cover inscribed according to the etymologically prone spelling at the time, which reads BUCURESCI CANALISARE (meaning Bucharests sewers). Compare to today's BUCUREȘTI CANALIZARE.

Before the spelling reform of 1904, there were several additional letters with diacritical marks.

  • Vowels:
    • ĭ — i with breve indicated semivowel i as part of Romanian diphthongs and triphthongs ia, ei, iei etc., or a final, "whispered" sound of the preceding palatalized consonant, in words such as Bucureşti (/bu.kuˈreʃtʲ/), lupi (/lupʲ/ – "wolves"), and greci (/ɡret͡ʃʲ/ – "Greeks") — Bucurescĭ (the proper spelling at the time used c instead of t, see -eşti), lupĭ, grecĭ. By replacing this letter with a simple i without making any additional changes, the phonetic value of the letter i became ambiguous; even native speakers can sometimes mispronounce words such as the toponym Pecica (which has two syllables, but is often mistakenly pronounced with three) or the name Mavrogheni (which has four syllables, not three).[10] Additionally, in a number of words such as subiect "subject"[11] and ziar "newspaper",[12] the pronunciation of i as a vowel or as a semivowel is different among speakers.
    • ŭ — u with breve was used only in the ending of a word. Unvoiced in most cases, it served to indicate that the previous consonant was not palatalized, or that the preceding vowel i was fully voiced. When voiced, it would follow a stressed vowel and stand in for semivowel u, as in words eŭ, aŭ, and meŭ, all spelled today without the breve. Once frequent, it survives today in author Mateiu Caragiale's name – originally spelled Mateiŭ (it is not specified whether the pronunciation should adopt a version that he himself probably never used, while in many editions he is still credited as Matei). In other names, only the breve was dropped, while preserving the pronunciation of a semivowel u, as is the case of B.P. Hasdeŭ.
    • ĕ — e with breve. This letter is now replaced with ă. The existence of two letters for one sound, the schwa, had an etymological purpose, showing from which vowel ("a" or "e") it originally derived. For example împĕrat – "emperor" (<Imperator), vĕd – "I see" (<vedo), umĕr – "shoulder" (<humerus), păsĕri – "birds" (<cf. passer).
    • é / É — Latin small/capital letter e with acute accent indicated a sound that corresponds either to today's Romanian diphthong ea, or in some words, to today's Romanian letter e. It would originally indicate the sound of Romanian letter e when it were pronounced as diphthong ea in certain Romanian regions, e.g. acéste (today spelled aceste) and céle (today spelled cele). This letter would sometimes indicate a derived word from a Romanian root word containing Latin letter e, as is the case of mirésă (today spelled mireasă) derived from mire. For other words it would underlie a relationship between a Romanian word and a Latin word containing letter e, where the Romanian word would use é, such as gréle (today spelled grele) derived from Latin word grevis. Lastly, this letter was used to accommodate the sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong ia, as in the word ér (iar today).[citation needed]
    • ó / Ó — Latin small/capital letter o with acute accent indicated a sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong oa. This letter would sometimes indicate a derived word from a Romanian root word containing Latin letter o, as is the case of popóre (today spelled popoare) derived from popor. For other words it would underlie a relationship between a Romanian word and a Latin word containing letter o, where the Romanian word would use ó, such as fórte (today spelled foarte) derived from Latin word forte. Lastly, this letter was used to accommodate the sound that corresponds to today's Romanian diphthong oa, as in the word fóme (foame today).[citation needed]
  • Consonants
    • d̦ / D̦ — Latin small/capital letter d with comma below was used to indicate the sound that corresponds today to Romanian letter z. It would denote that the word it belonged to was assumed to be derived from Latin and that its corresponding Latin letter was d. Examples of words containing this letter are: d̦i (day in English) – assumed[13] to be derived from the Latin word dies, Dumned̦eu (God in English) – assumed[14] to be derived from Latin phrase Domine Deus), d̦ână (fairy in English) – supposed[15] to be derived from the Latin word Diana. In today's Romanian language this letter is no longer present and Latin letter z is used in its stead.[citation needed]

Use of these letters was not fully adopted even before 1904, as some publications (e.g. Timpul and Universul) chose to use a simplified approach that resembled today's Romanian language writing.[citation needed]

Other diacritics

As with other languages, the acute accent is sometimes used in Romanian texts to indicate the stressed vowel in some words. This use is regular in dictionary headwords, but also occasionally found in carefully edited texts to disambiguate between homographs that are not also homophones, such as to differentiate between cópii ("copies") and copíi ("children"), éra ("era") and erá ("was"), ácele ("the needles") and acéle ("those"), etc. The accent also distinguishes between homographic verb forms, such as încúie and încuié ("he locks" and "he has locked").[16]

Diacritics in some borrowings are kept: bourrée, pietà. Foreign names are also usually spelled with their original diacritics: Bâle, Molière, even when an acute accent might be wrongly interpreted as a stress, as in István or Gérard. However, frequently used foreign names, such as names of cities or countries, are often spelled without diacritics: Bogota, Panama, Peru.[17]

Digital typography

ISO 8859

Widespread Wrong Usage of Romanian Diacritics

The character encoding standard ISO 8859 initially defined a single code page for the entire Central and Eastern Europe — ISO 8859-2. This code page includes only "s" and "t" with cedillas. The South-Eastern European ISO 8859-16 includes "s" and "t" with comma below on the same places "s" and "t" with cedilla were in ISO 8859-2. The ISO 8859-16 code page became a standard after Unicode became widespread, however, so it was largely ignored by software vendors.

Unicode and HTML

The circumflex and breve accented Romanian letters were part of the Unicode standard since its inception, as well as the cedilla variants of s and t. Ș and ț (comma-below variants) were added to Unicode version 3.0.[18][19] From Unicode version 3.0 to version 5.1, the cedilla-using characters were specified by the Unicode Standard to be "used in both Turkish and Romanian data" and that "a glyph variant with comma below is preferred for Romanian"; On the newly encoded comma-using characters, it said that they should be used "when distinct comma below form is required".[20][21] Unicode 5.2 explicitly states that "the form with the cedilla is preferred in Turkish, and the form with the comma below is preferred in Romanian", while mentioning (possibly for historical reasons) that "in Turkish and Romanian, a cedilla and a comma below sometimes replace one another".[22]

Widespread adoption was hampered for some years by the lack of fonts providing the new glyphs. In May 2007, five months after Romania (and Bulgaria) joined the EU, Microsoft released updated fonts that include all official glyphs of the Romanian (and Bulgarian) alphabet.[23] This font update targeted Windows XP SP2, Windows Server 2003, and Windows Vista. The subset of Unicode most widely supported on Microsoft Windows systems, Windows Glyph List 4, still does not include the comma-below variants of S and T.

Phoneme With comma (official) With cedilla
Character Unicode position (hex) HTML entity Character Unicode position (hex) HTML entity
/ʃ/ Ș 0218 &#x218; or &#536; Ş 015E &#x15E; or &#350;
ș 0219 &#x219; or &#537; ş 015F &#x15F; or &#351;
/t͡s/ Ț 021A &#x21A; or &#538; Ţ 0162 &#x162; or &#354;
ț 021B &#x21B; or &#539; ţ 0163 &#x163; or &#355;

Vowels with diacritics are coded as follows:

Phoneme Character Unicode position (hex) HTML entity
/ə/ Ă 0102 &#x102; or &#258;
ă 0103 &#x103; or &#259;
/ɨ/ Â 00C2 &Acirc; or &#xC2; or &#194;
â 00E2 &acirc; or &#xE2; or &#226;
Î 00CE &Icirc; or &#xCE; or &#206;
î 00EE &icirc; or &#xEE; or &#238;

Adobe/Linotype/Vista de-facto standard

Inconsistent cedilla glyphs in Adobe Caslon (left). The correct Romanian rendering (right) can be obtained by activating the OpenType GSUB/latn/ROM/locl feature, which remaps the s with cedilla glyph to comma-below. The rendering on the right is visually indistinguishable from the rendering produced by comma-below code points for this font.

Adobe Systems decided[24] that the Unicode glyphs "t with cedilla" U+0162/3 are not used in any language. Adobe has therefore substituted the glyphs with "t with comma below" (U+021A/B) in all the fonts they ship. The unfortunate consequence of this decision is that Romanian documents using the (unofficial) Unicode points U+015E/F and U+0162/3 (for ș and ț) are rendered in Adobe fonts in a visually inconsistent way using "s with cedilla", but "t with comma" (see figure). Linotype fonts that support Romanian glyphs mostly follow this convention.[25]

The fonts introduced by Microsoft in Windows Vista also implement this de-facto Adobe standard. Few Microsoft fonts provide a consistent look when cedilla variants are used; notable ones are Tahoma, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Microsoft Sans Serif and Segoe UI.

The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts provide proper and consistent glyphs in both variants. Red Hat's Liberation fonts only support the comma below variants starting with version 1.04, scheduled for inclusion in Fedora 10.

OpenType ROM/locl feature

Some OpenType fonts from Adobe and all C-series Vista fonts implement the optional OpenType feature GSUB/latn/ROM/locl.[26] This feature forces "s with cedilla" to be rendered using the same glyph as "s with comma below". When this second (but optional) remapping takes place, Romanian Unicode text is rendered with comma-below glyphs regardless of code point variants.

Unfortunately, most Microsoft pre-Vista OpenType fonts (Arial etc.) do not implement the ROM/locl feature, even after the European Union Expansion Font Update,[23] so old documents will look inconsistent as in the left side of the above figure. Select few fonts, e.g. Verdana and Trebuchet MS, not only have a consistent look for cedilla variants (after the EU update), but also do a simultaneous remapping of cedilla s and t to comma-below variants when ROM/locl is activated. The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts do not yet offer this feature in their current releases, but development versions do.

Pango supports the locl tag since version 1.17. XeTeX supports locl since version 0.995. As of July 2008, very few Windows applications support the locl feature tag. From the Adobe CS3 suite, only InDesign has support for it.[27]

The status of Romanian support in the free fonts that ship with Fedora is maintained at Fedoraproject.org.

Combining characters

Unicode also allows diacritical marks to be represented as standalone combining characters. For Romanian characters this method is practically unsupported in commercial fonts. A few free fonts like Charis SIL, DejaVu or Linux Libertine support this method, but the typographical quality varies, thus it is preferable to use the single code points instead.

(La)TeX

LaTeX allows typesetting in Romanian using the cedilla Ş and Ţ using the Cork encoding. The comma-below variants are not completely supported in the standard 8-bit TeX font encodings. The lack of a standard LICR (LaTeX Internal Character Representations) for comma-below Ș and Ț is part of the problem. The latin10 input method attempts to remedy the problem by defining the \textcommabelow LICR accent. This is unfortunately not supported by the utf8 input method. The latin10 package composes the comma-below glyphs by superimposing a comma and the letters S and T. This method is suitable only for printing. In PDF documents produced this way searching or copying text does not work properly. The Polish QX encoding has some support for comma-below glyphs, which are improperly mapped to cedilla LICRs, but also lacks A breve (Ă), which must always be composite, thus unsearchable.

In the Latin Modern Type 1 fonts the T with comma below is found under the AGL name /Tcommaaccent. This is in contradiction with Adobe's decision discussed above, which puts a T with comma-below at /Tcedilla. In consequence, no fixed mapping can work across all Type 1 fonts; each font must come with its own mapping. Unfortunately, TeX output drivers, like dvips, dvipdfm or pdfTeX's internal PDF driver, access the glyphs by AGL name. Since all of the output drivers mentioned are unaware of this peculiarity, the problem is essentially intractable across all fonts. In consequence, one needs to use fonts that include a mapping which is not bypassed by TeX. This is the case with newer TeX engine XeTeX, which can use Unicode OpenType fonts, and does not bypass the font's Unicode map.

Keyboard layout

Romanian letters  and à on the keyboard of an Apple MacBook Pro
Romanian SR 13392:2004 ("primary") keyboard layout

The current Romanian National Standard SR 13392:2004 establishes two layouts for Romanian keyboards: a “primary”[28] one and a “secondary”[29] one.

The “primary” layout is intended for more traditional users that learned long ago how to type with older, Microsoft-style implementations of the Romanian keyboard. The “secondary” layout is mainly used by programmers and it does not contradict the physical arrangement of keys on a US-style keyboard. The “secondary” arrangement is used as the default one by the majority of GNU/Linux distributions.

There are four Romanian-specific characters that are incorrectly implemented in all Microsoft Windows versions before Vista:

  • “S with comma below” (U+0218) – incorrectly implemented as “S with cedilla below” (U+015E)
  • “s with comma below” (U+0219) – incorrectly implemented as “s with cedilla below” (U+015F)
  • “T with comma below” (U+021A) – incorrectly implemented as “T with cedilla below” (U+0162)
  • “t with comma below” (U+021B) – incorrectly implemented as “t with cedilla below” (U+0163)

Since Romanian hardware keyboards are not widely available, Cristian Secară has created a driver that allows the Romanian characters to be generated with a US-style keyboard, in all Windows versions previous to Vista. It uses the right AltGr key modifier to generate the characters.[30]

An alternative, more ergonomic (though non-standard) keyboard layout, with a user choice between cedillas and commas, is proposed and implemented for the Microsoft Windows operating system by the Ergo Romanian project. They suggest altering keys on the standard QWERTY layout which are less frequent in Romanian, namely q, w, y, k, x, to produce Romanian characters ă, ș, ț, î, â, respectively.[31]

Phonetic alphabet

There is a Romanian equivalent to the English-language NATO phonetic alphabet. Most code words are people's first names, with the exception of K, J, Q, W, Y, and Z. Letters with diacritics (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, Ț) are generally transmitted without diacritics (A, A, I, S, T).

      Word IPA (unofficial)         Word IPA (unofficial)
A Ana /ˈa.na/ N Nicolae /ni.koˈla.e/
B Barbu /ˈbar.bu/ O Olga /ˈol.ɡa/
C Constantin /kon.stanˈtin/ P Petre /ˈpe.tre/
D Dumitru /duˈmi.tru/ Q Q /kju/
E Elena /eˈle.na/ R Radu /ˈra.du/
F Florea /ˈflo.re̯a/ S Sandu /ˈsan.du/
G Gheorghe /ˈɡe̯or.ɡe/ T Tudor /ˈtu.dor/
H Haralambie /ha.raˈlam.bi.e/ U Udrea /ˈu.dre̯a/
I Ion /iˈon/ V Vasile /vaˈsi.le/
J Jiu /ʒiw/ W dublu V /du.bluˈve/
K kilogram /ki.loˈɡram/ X Xenia /ˈkse.ni.a/
L Lazăr /ˈla.zər/ Y I grec /ˈi.ɡrek/
M Maria /maˈri.a/ Z zahăr /ˈza.hər/

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ (Romanian) Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române, 1998, Z is the thirty first letter of the Romanian alphabet, dexonline.ro
  2. ^ Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti”, Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, București, 2005, pp. XXVII–XXVIII (Romanian)
  3. ^ (Romanian) Academia Română, Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române, Entry for K, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998, dexonline.ro
  4. ^ Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti”, Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2nd Edition, Univers Enciclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005, ISBN 973-637-087-x, p. XXIX (Romanian)
  5. ^ (Romanian) Several Romanian dictionaries specify the pronunciation [je] for word-initial letter e in some personal pronouns: el, ei, etc. and in some forms of the verb a fi (to be): este, eram, etc.
  6. ^ Alf Lombard, "Despre folosirea literelor â și î", Limba română, 1992, nr. 10, p. 531
  7. ^ A statistical study cited by George Pruteanu in "De ce scriu cu î din i" ("Why I spell with î") finds that proportion to be only about 15%.
  8. ^ Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2005, p. XLV
  9. ^ For instance: Eugenia Dima et al., Dicționar explicativ ilustrat al limbii române, 2007; Ioan Oprea et al., Noul dicționar universal al limbii române, third edition, 2008; Dumitru Irimia, Gramatica limbii române, third edition, 2008.
  10. ^ (Romanian) Mioara Avram, Ortografie pentru toţi, Editura Litera Internaţional, Bucureşti – Chișinău, 2002, p. 66
  11. ^ Most dictionaries give the syllabification su-biect, implying that i is a semivowel, but Dicționar de neologisme syllabifies it as su-bi-ect, with vocalic i: Dexonline.ro
  12. ^ Dictionaries generally recommend the pronunciation with vocalic i, zi-ar, but the pronunciation in one syllable is also recorded, among others, by Ioana Chiţoran, in The Phonology of Romanian, 2002, p. 14.
  13. ^ Definition of Romanian word zi at dexonline.ro
  14. ^ Definition of Romanian word Dumnezeu at dexonline.ro
  15. ^ Definition of Romanian word zână at dexonline.ro
  16. ^ Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2005, p. LI (Romanian)
  17. ^ Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2005, p. LII (Romanian)
  18. ^ Unicode 3.0 standard, p.162
  19. ^ Unicode.org
  20. ^ Unicode.org
  21. ^ Unicode.org
  22. ^ Unicode 5.2 Chapter 7, European Alphabetic Scripts
  23. ^ a b European Union Expansion Font Update, microsoft.com
  24. ^ comments of Canadian type designer John Hudson, typophile.com
  25. ^ Linotype's font finder allows users to test font rendering with their own sample texts. Tested with the sample text "Țâșnit în şanţ".Linotype.com
  26. ^ locl glyph localization feature tag explained., microsoft.com
  27. ^ p. 15, store.adobe.com
  28. ^ Primary keyboard layout, sourceforge.net
  29. ^ Secondary keyboard layout, diacritice.sourceforge.net
  30. ^ Cristian Secară. "RO Keyboard" (in Romanian). http://www.secarica.ro/html/ro_keyboard.html. Retrieved 6 January 2009. 
  31. ^ Anasoftware. "Ergo Romanian". http://www.ergoromanian.com/. Retrieved 6 January 2009. 

Bibliography

  • (Romanian) Mioara Avram, Ortografie pentru toţi, Editura Litera Internaţional, 2002
  • The Unicode Consortium (2000). The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-61633-5. 

External links

v · d · eRomanian language (articles)
Subdialects
Wallachia • Moldavia • Banat • Transylvania (Crișana, Maramureș)
Dialects / related languages
Linguistics
Grammar (nouns, verbs, numbers) • Alphabet (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, Ț) • Vocabulary (profanities) • Phonology • Exonyms
Historic evolution
Institutions
Other

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