Hindi-Urdu grammar

Modern Standard Hindi is the official language of India, [] The future suffix, conjunctive participle, and suffix "vālā" are treated as bound morphemes in written Hindi, but as separate words in written Urdu. Again followed here is the example of Urdu, for easier reference.
*The present copula (h-?) seems not to follow along the lines of the regular ^P system of terminations; while the subjunctive copula (ho-^P) is thoroughly irregular. So here are all of their forms.:

In the case of a noun as the non-verbal element, it is treated syntactically as the verb's (direct) object (never taking the "ko" marker; governing agreement in perfective and infinitival constructions), and the semantic patient of the conjunct verbal expression is often expressed/marked syntactically as a genitive adjunct ("-kā" ~ "ke" ~ "kī") of the noun. [Harv|Masica|1991|p=368]

With English it is the verb stems themselves that are used.

Passive

The passive construction is periphrastic. It is formed from the perfective participle by addition of the auxiliary "jānā" "to go"; i.e. "likhnā" "to write" → "likhā jānā" "to be written". The agent is marked by the postposition "se". Furthermore, both intransitive and transitive verbs may be grammatically passivized to show physical/psychological incapacity, usually in negative sentences. Lastly, intransitives often have a passive sense, or convey unintentional action. [Harvcoltxt|Schmidt|2003|p=331]

Usages of nominal forms

The following section gives examples of different ways in which nouns and pronouns may be used.

Direct

Also called nominative. [Masica, p. 340] :* The subject or complement of the verb "honā" (to be)::: "laṛkā āj yahā̃ nahī̃ hai" ("The boy isn't here today") [McGregor, p. 4] ::: "yah mez hai" ("This is a table") [McGregor, p. 5] :* The subject of an intransitive verb::: "maĩ caltā hū̃" ("I'm going") [McGregor, p. 20] :* The subject of a transitive verb that is not in the perfective aspect::: "vah kitāb likh rahā thā" ("he was writing the book") [McGregor, p. 78] :* The direct object of a transitive verb, when its identity is not definite.::: "darzī bulāo" ("call a tailor") [McGregor, p. 53]

Ergative

Also called agentive. [Masica, p. 232] For nouns, this consists of the oblique form followed by "ne". [McGregor, p. 78] For pronouns it is given in the tables above.:* The subject of a transitive verb that is in the perfective aspect. ::: "usne kitāb likhī" ("he wrote the book"ndash compare "he was writing the book" above) [McGregor, p. 78]

Dative

Also called object [McGregor, p. 12] or dative-accusative [Masica, p. 365] For nouns, this consists of the oblique form followed by "ko". [McGregor, p. 78] For pronouns it is given in the tables above.:* The direct object of a transitive verb, where its identity is definite.::: "darzī ko bulāo" ("call the tailor"ndash compare "call a tailor" above) [McGregor, p. 53] :* The indirect object of a verb.::: "yogesh ne ajay ko apnī tasvīrẽ dihkāī̃" ("Yogesh showed his pictures to Ajay") [Masica, p. 367] :* In a variety of idiomatic expressions, often in combination with the verb "honā" (to be), indicating a close connection with another noun, or sometimes adjective, in the same sentence. [McGregor, p. 54] . Masica calls this the "dative subject construction". [Masica, p. 346] ::: "mujhe bahut xushī hai" ("I am very pleased"ndash literally "there is to me great happiness") [McGregor, p. 55] ::: "āpko kyā cāhiye" ("What do you want?"ndash literally "What to you is wanted?") [Masica, p. 348]

Genitive

For nouns, this consists of the oblique form followed by "kā". [McGregor, p. 78] For pronouns it is given in the tables above. This form indicates possession, and agrees with the thing possessed in gender, number and case in the same manner as an adjective such as "IAST|baṛā".::: "us strī kā IAST|beṭā" ("that woman's son") [McGregor, p. 9] ::: "us strī ke IAST|beṭe" ("that woman's sons") [McGregor, p. 9]

Other postpositions

The oblique case may be followed by other postpositions including the following:
* "se" ("by, with, from"), to create what are sometimes caled the ablative, sociative and instrumental cases. [Masica, p. 246]

*"mẽ" ("in") and "par" ("on") in what is sometimes called the locative case. [Masica, p. 246]

* "tak" ("up to").

General oblique

The oblique case may be used on its own, without any following postposition or particle: this usage is known as the general oblique. [Masica, p. 239] ::: "bhūkõ marā" ("I'm dead "of hunger") [Masica, p. 239]

yntax

With regards to word order, Hindi-Urdu is an SOV language. In terms of branching, it is neither purely left- or right-branching, and phenomena of both types can be found. The order of constituents in sentences as a whole lacks governing "hard and fast rules", and frequent deviations can be found from normative word position, describable in terms of a small number of rules, accounting for facts beyond the pale of the label of "SOV". [Harvcoltxt|Shapiro|2003|p=271]

# Indirect objects precede direct objects.
# Attributive adjectives precede the noun they qualify.
# Adverbs precede the adjectives they qualify.
# Negative markers ("nahī̃, na, mat") and interrogatives precede the verb.
# Interrogatives precede negative markers if both are present.
# "kyā" ("what?") as the yes-no question marker occurs at the "beginning" of a clause.

References

Bibliography

*Harvard reference
last=Masica
first=Colin
authorlink=Colin Masica
year=1991
title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
place= Cambridge
publisher=Cambridge University Press
isbn=9780521299442
url=http://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=indo-aryan+languages.
*Harvard reference
last=Schmidt
first=Ruth Laila
year=2003
chapter=Urdu
url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jPR2OlbTbdkC&pg=PA286&dq=indo-aryan&sig=BWUDFSCrQPgfbEznzUZcq7B2HnE
editor1-last= Cardona
editor1-first= George
editor2-last= Jain
editor2-first= Dhanesh
title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
publisher=Routledge
isbn=9780415772945
pages=286-350.
*Harvard reference
last=McGregor
first=Ronald Stuart
year=1995
title=Outline of Hindi Grammar
publisher=Clarendon Press
place=Oxford
edition=third
isbn=0198700083.
*Harvard reference
last=Shapiro
first=Michael C.
year=2003
chapter=Hindi
url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jPR2OlbTbdkC&pg=PA250&dq=indo-aryan&sig=cUNurxJKkTLfKf8uiMd7pWX2RC0
editor1-last= Cardona
editor1-first= George
editor2-last= Jain
editor2-first= Dhanesh
title=The Indo-Aryan Languages
publisher=Routledge
isbn=9780415772945
pages=250-285.
*Harvard reference
last1= Snell
first1= Rupert
last2= Weightman
first2= Simon
year=1989
title=Teach Yourself Hindi
publisher=McGraw-Hill
edition=2003
isbn=9780071420129.

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