Mangosteen

Taxobox
name = Mangosteen

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image_width = 250px
image_caption = Mangosteen fruit
regnum = Plantae
divisio = Magnoliophyta
classis = Magnoliopsida
ordo = Malpighiales
familia = Clusiaceae
genus = "Garcinia"
species = "G. mangostana"
binomial = "Garcinia mangostana"
binomial_authority = L.The mangosteen ("Garcinia mangostana") is a tropical evergreen tree, believed to have originated in the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas. The tree grows from 7 to 25 m (20-80 ft) tall. The rind (exocarp) of the edible fruit is deep reddish purple when ripe. Botanically an aril, the fragrant edible flesh can be described as sweet and tangy, citrusy with peach flavor and texture. Mangosteen is closely related to other edible tropical fruits such as button mangosteen and lemondrop mangosteen. Botanically, it bears no relation to the mango.

Taxonomy

The mangosteen was first described in 1753 by the father of taxonomy Linnaeus in his "Species Plantarum".

Maturation of the exocarp and edible aril

The juvenile mangosteen fruit, which does not require fertilization to form (see agamospermy), first appears as pale green or almost white in the shade of the canopy. As the fruit enlarges over the next two to three months, the exocarp color deepens to darker green. During this period, the fruit increases in size until its exocarp is 6–8 centimeters in outside diameter, remaining hard until a final, abrupt ripening stage.

The subsurface chemistry of the mangosteen exocarp comprises an array of polyphenolic acids including xanthones and tannins that assure astringency to discourage infestation by insects, fungi, plant viruses, bacteria and animal predation while the fruit is immature. Color changes and softening of the exocarp are natural processes of ripening that indicates the fruit can be eaten and the seeds are finished developing. [ [http://www.hort.wisc.edu/usdavcru/simon/publications/97hort0012.html Plant Pigments for Color and Nutrition ] ]

Mangosteen produces a recalcitrant seed and must be kept moist to remain viable until germination. Mangosteen seeds are nucellar in origin and not the result of fertilization; they germinate as soon as they are removed from the fruit and die quickly if allowed to dry. [ [http://mangosteen.com/Sciencenonscienceandnonsense.htm Mangosteen seed information ] ]

Once the developing mangosteen fruit has stopped expanding, chlorophyll synthesis slows as the next color phase begins. Initially streaked with red, the exocarp pigmentation transitions from green to red to dark purple, indicating a final ripening stage. This entire process takes place over a period of ten days as the edible quality of the fruit peaks.

The edible endocarp of the mangosteen is botanically defined as an aril with the same shape and size as a tangerine 4–6 centimeters in diameter, but is white. The circle of wedge-shaped arils contains 4–8 segments, the larger ones harboring apomictic seeds that are unpalatable unless roasted.

Often described as a subtle delicacy, the arils bear an exceptionally mild aroma, quantitatively having about 400 times fewer chemical constituents than fragrant fruits, explaining its relative mildness. [MacLeod AJ, Pieris NM. Volatile flavour components of mangosteen, "Garcinia mangostana". Phytochemistry 21:117-9, 1982] Main volatile components having caramel, grass and butter notes as part of the mangosteen fragrance are hexyl acetate, hexenol and α-copaene.

On the bottom of the exocarp, raised ridges (remnants of the stigma), arranged like spokes of a wheel, correspond to the number of aril sections. [ [http://mangosteen.com/FruitPicturesPageone.htm Mangosteen photographs showing external characteristics (mangosteen.com)] ] Mangosteens reach fruit-bearing in as little as 5–6 years, but more typically require 8–10 years. [ [http://mangosteen.com/Sciencenonscienceandnonsense.htm Mangosteen growing characteristics ] ]

Nutrient content and antioxidant strength

Mangosteen is typically advertised and marketed as part of an emerging category of novel functional foods sometimes called "superfruits" [ [http://naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/07mar12feat3.html Fruits of the Future? ] ] [ [http://ffnmag.com/ASP/articleDisplay.asp?strArticleId=1284&strSite=FFNSite&Screen=HOME Superfruits — superheroes of functionality - Functional Ingredients Magazine ] ] [ [http://www.nutraingredients-usa.com/news/ng.asp?id=71664-cspi-ftc-super-fruits Pressure group denounces super fruit juices ] ] presumed to have a combination of 1) appealing subjective characteristics, such as taste, fragrance and visual qualities, 2) nutrient richness, 3) antioxidant strength and 4) potential impact for lowering risk against human diseases. Among six exotic fruits, the unpigmented, white fruit of the mangosteen was ranked lowest overall for these qualities. [ [http://www.naturalproductsinsider.com/articles/tracking-market.html Gross PM. Tracking market meteors: exotic superfruits. Natural Products Insider, November 2007] ]

The aril is the flavorful part of the fruit but, when analyzed specifically for its nutrient content, the mangosteen aril only meets the first criterion above, as its overall nutrient profile is absent of important content, [ [http://mangosteen.com/Sciencenonscienceandnonsense.htm Mangosteen nutrient information ] ] it contains no pigmentation (correspondingly, no antioxidant phytochemicals in significant concentration) and there is no scientific evidence of aril constituents having any health properties. [ [http://www.npicenter.com/anm/templates/newsATemp.aspx?articleid=17613&zoneid=43 Is Mangosteen A Superfruit? Nutrient and Antioxidant Properties :: News :: Natural and Nutritional Products Industry Center ] ]

Some mangosteen juice products contain whole fruit purée or polyphenols extracted from the inedible exocarp (rind) as a formulation strategy to add phytochemical value. The resulting juice has purple color and astringency derived from exocarp pigments, including xanthones under study for potential anti-disease effects. [ [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16536578 Jung H, Su B, Keller W, Mehta R, Kinghorn A (2006). "Antioxidant xanthones from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana (Mangosteen)". J. Agric. Food Chem. 54 (6): 2077-82. PMID 16536578 ] ] However, as xanthone research is at an early stage of basic laboratory research and only preliminary evidence has been found for anti-disease activity, no conclusions about possible health benefits for humans are warranted presently.

Furthermore, a possible adverse effect may occur from chronic consumption of mangosteen juice containing xanthones. A 2008 medical case report described a patient with severe acidosis possibly attributable to a year of daily use (to lose weight, dose not described) of mangosteen juice infused with xanthones. [ [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18436094 Wong LP, Klemmer PJ. Severe lactic acidosis associated with juice of the mangosteen fruit, "Garcinia mangostana" Am J Kidney Dis 51:829-3, 2008] ] The authors proposed that chronic exposure to alpha-mangostin, a xanthone, could be toxic to mitochondrial function, [ [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15498656 Matsumoto K, Akao Y, Yi H, Ohguchi K, Ito T, Tanaka T, Kobayashi E, Iinuma M, Nozawa Y. Preferential target is mitochondria in alpha-mangostin-induced apoptosis in human leukemia HL60 cells. Bioorg Med Chem. 2004 Nov 15;12(22):5799-806] ] leading to impairment of cellular respiration and production of lactic acidosis.

Legend, geographic origins and culinary applications

There is a legend about Queen Victoria offering a reward to anyone who could deliver to her the fabled fruit. [ [http://mangosteen.com/historyandfolklore.htm The history and folklore of the mangosteen ] ] In his publication, "Hortus Veitchii", James Herbert Veitch says that he visited Java in 1892, "to eat the Mangosteen. It is necessary to eat the Mangosteen grown within three or four degrees of latitude of the equator to realize at all the attractive and curious properties of this fruit." [cite book | author=James Herbert Veitch| title=Hortus Veitchii| publisher=Caradoc Doy | year=2006 reprint|pages=p.89| isbn=0-9553515-0-2]

An ultra-tropical tree, the mangosteen must be grown in consistently warm conditions, as exposure to temperatures below 40°F (4°C) will generally kill a mature plant.

Due to ongoing restrictions on imports, mangosteen is not commonly available to the public. Following export from its natural growing regions in Southeast Asia, the fresh fruit is available seasonally in some local markets like those of Chinatowns and rarely in produce sections of grocery stores in North America and Europe. Mangosteen and its related products, such as juices and nutritional supplements, are legally imported into the United States which had an import ban until 2007.

Mangosteens are readily available canned and frozen in Western countries. Without fumigation or irradiation as fresh fruit, mangosteens have historically been illegal for importation in commercial volumes into the United States due to fears that they harbor the Asian fruit fly which would endanger U.S. crops. This situation, however, officially changed on July 23, 2007 when irradiated imports from Thailand were allowed upon USDA approval of irradiation, packing and shipping techniques. [ [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/27/dining/27frui.html Welcome at the Border: Thai Fruits, Once Banned - New York Times ] ] Freeze-dried and dehydrated mangosteen arils can also be found.

From 2006 to present, private small volume orders from fruits grown on Puerto Rico are being filled for American gourmet restaurants who serve the aril pieces as a delicacy dessert. [ [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/09/dining/09mang.html?ex=1312776000&en=0d1a76f2087e406d&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss. Forbidden? Not the Mangosteen - New York Times ] ] Beginning in 2007 for the first time, fresh mangosteens are also being sold for as high as $45 per pound from specialty produce stores in New York City. [ [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/08/dining/08mang.html Mangosteens Arrive, But Be Prepared to Pay - New York Times ] ]

Before ripening, the mangosteen shell is fibrous and firm, but becomes soft and easy to pry open when the fruit ripens. To open a mangosteen, the shell is usually scored first with a knife; one holds the fruit in both hands, prying gently along the score with the thumbs until the rind cracks. It is then easy to pull the halves apart along the crack and remove the fruit. Rarely in ripe fruits, the purple exocarp juice may stain skin or fabric.

See also

* Mangostin - one of the xanthones in the mangosteen but only present in the inedible exocarp.
* List of culinary fruits

References

Further reading

* [http://mangosteen.com Mangosteen Technical Homepage: Science, Nutrients, History, Horticulture, Folklore]
* [http://chetday.com/mangosteen.htm From Cancer Decisions; A Friendly Skeptic looks at Mangosteen - reprinted in Chet Day's Health & Beyond]
* [http://www.npicenter.com/anm/templates/newsATemp.aspx?articleid=17613&zoneid=43 Is Mangosteen a Superfruit? Nutrient and Antioxidant Properties]
* [http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/pl_act.xsql?taxon=1228 Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, Garcinia mangostana L., Clusiaceae]
*"Five Decades with Tropical Fruit, A Personal Journey" (2001) by William Francis Whitman
* [http://www.montosogardens.com/garcinia_mangostana.htm MontosoGardens.com - Garcinia mangostana (Clusi aceae)]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mangosteen.html Morton, J. 1987. Mangosteen. p. 301–304. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.]
* [http://www.proscitech.com.au/trop/d.htm ProSciTech.com.au - Mangosteens]
* [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/mangosteen/AN01197 Mayo Clinic report on mangosteen]
* [http://www.brooklynpaper.com/stories/30/32/30_32mangle.html "I paid $11 for this strange fruit — and I’d do it again!", Gersh Kuntzman The Brooklyn Paper, August 18, 2007]
* [http://nationmultimedia.com/2007/07/31/national/national_30043072.php "Mangosteen price too low: farmers", The Nation, July 31, 2007]
* [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/mangosteen/AN01197 MayoClinic.com. Mangosteen juice: can it relieve arthritis pain? October 10, 2007]
* [http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/washington/news.aspx?id=80519 Tropical sweetness: harnessing the elusive mangosteen, P. Temple-West, Medill Reports-Washington, DC, March 5, 2008]

Video

* [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/26/business/worldbusiness/26food.html Meet the Mangosteen, a video in The Food Chain: Environmental Cost of Shipping Groceries Around the World, NY Times, World Business, April 26, 2008]