History of Herzegovina

The History of Herzegovina ranges from the first Slavic migrations to the region to the most recent Bosnian War.

Pre-Slavic history

Medieval period

Early Medieval Age

The region experienced intense Slavic migrations since the 5th century; but the intense waves of Slavic tribes, particularely from White Serbia, came during the 6th and 7th centuries. According to "De Administrando Imperio" from around 950 by Byzantine Emperor Constantin VII Porphyrogenitos, the region was desolated by the Avar breaches and given to the Slavs to inhabit. The Slavs had formed a Principality known as Zahumlje, its people being the "Zachlumoi" under the Višević dynasty - tribal immigrants from the upper strims of the River of Visla in the most northeastern reaches of White Serbia, facing White Croatia. The work of an anonymous scryptor, De Regno Sclavorum from 753, found in the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from the 12th century, marks the population of the Principality as being Red Croats, and Zahumlje as a part of Red Croatia, subjected to the north-western Croatian Principality of Dalmatia. By the 10th century, the inhabitants were Serbs, descendant from the ages of the Unknown Archont who fled to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius in the first half of the 7th century.

The Principality ("Kneževina"), ruled by Archonts, the Princes ("Knez") of Zahumlje bordered the Principality of Pagania along the River of Neretva to the west, the Principality of Dalmatia to the northwest, the Principality of Travunia to the west around Kalinovik and the Field of Gatak along the line of Zachumian settlements Popovo-Ljubinje-Dabar to Byzantine Ragusion; and Serbia to the north; while it had access to the Adriatic Sea. In the native, Slavic language, the "Zahumljani" (inhabitants of Zahumlje) means "those behind the hills" and Zahumlje itself got its name from the mountain of Hum over Blagaj. There were two cities in the mountainous area of the Hum: Bona and Hum. The Zachlumian towns were: Ošlje, Ston and Dabar and cities: Mokriskik and Galumainik. Zahumlje was split onto nine lesser Principalities ("Zhupanates"): Ston, Popovo, Dubrava, Luka, Dabar, Veljaka, ?, ? and Večenika near the River of Neretva. The name of all the people from Mostar to Ston hence became "Humljaci".

Since the founding of the House of Vlastimir ruling dynasty in Serbia in the 9th century, Zahumlje was continuously being subjected by the "Grand Princes" (Veliki Župan) of Rascia". Although then subjected to Rascia, the rulers of Zahumlje thus stiled themselves as Grand Princes ("Veliki Knez") of Zahumlje.

The late 9th century brought the Christianization of the "Zachlumoi", together with the Serbs under Princes "Petar" and "Goinik" prior to the conversitions and techings of Cyril and Methodus.

During the rule of Grand Prince of Rascia Petar of Goinik of the House of Vlastimir, the Zachlumian Great Prince ("Dux Chulmorum") Mihailo Višević was under Peter's strong hand and has held no real control over his realm. With the rise of the Kingdom of Croatia to the west, the breaking of the Vlastimir Serbian House's power in Rascia and the growing threat of the Bulgarian Czardom to the east, Prince Mihailo aligned with King Tomislav of Croatia and accepted his supreme rule. Mihailo's subjects were presented as Croats.

After the death of King Tomislav and the uniting of the Serbian Realm under Prince Ceslav of Klonimir of the House of Vlastimir up to 931, Zahumlje became nominally subjected to Prince Ceslav, but he in reality didn't mettle much in the Zachlumian affairs.

The Zachlumian dynasty split the Principality of Zahumlje into two Duchies:
* Duchy of Lower Zahumlje, the larger, coastal part that continued to cherish the Zachlumian tradition
* Duchy of Upper Zahumlje, the smaller, continental part that separated Pagania from Bosnia - this Duchy was directly incorporated into Serbia

After the death of Prince Ceslav in 960, Zahumlje became a part of the Byzantine "theme of Serbia" under the Thessalonikan strategos - Constantine Diogenes as the first Strategos of Serbia.

In 969, Croatia's King Mihajlo Krešimir waged a deceisive war against the Byzantine Empire and managed to conquer numerous territories, including Zahumlje. King Mihajlo Krešimir attempted to pacify the Zachlumian population, but this would soon lead to his undoing, as the Byzantines knocked his presence out of Zahumlje and restored home control.

In the first half of the 11th century, an uprising was raised in Duklja by Prince Stefan Voislav, the founder of the House of Voislav. The Zachlumian Prince Ljudovit was ordered by the Byzantine Emperor to move in conjunction with the Bosnian Ban and Rascian Prince against him. Ljudovit's allies have abandoned him, so he had to fight Voislav's forces in Travunia alone, where he would eventually meet his demise as he will be killed in a battle with Stefan Voislav and his two deputies. Zahumlje then became subordinated to Duklja. Stefan Voislav's successor, Serbian King Mihailo Voislav, had a lot of troubly quelling an uprising in Zahumlje in the second half of the 11th century until he incorporated the land into his domain. Zahumlje soon became a territorial entity of the vast Kingdom of Duklja and Dalmatia of King Constantin Bodin.

In the ensuing periods of internal struggle of the Rascian Grand Princely throne and the Doclean Regal title, Zahumlje absorbed Pagania, together with the Adriatic islands of Krkar and Mljet; but in the periods of disorder in 1124–1127, the Venetians conquered the island.

Prince of Rascia Zavida, son of Grand Prince Uroš I of the House of Voislav of Rascia was given Zahumlje to rule in his father's name in the 12th century. Zavida didn't stay long, as his brothers that were struggling for control over the entire realm soon pushed him out of the land and he fled to Ribnica in Duklja in 1114.

Prince Desa, one of the most prominent members of the House of Voislav, managed to unite Zahumlje with Travunia and Duklja. He greatly contributed the advancement of the Benedictine Order in his country, especially on the island of Mljet. In the following period, all the Rascian Grand Princely lands, including Zahumlje, were vassalaged to the Kingdom of Hungary on which throne the Serbian House of Voislav managed to climb. The Hungarian Ban of Croatia would deal with opposals to Hungarian rule in Zahumlje.

High Middle Ages

The Byzantines waged a long war aganst the Hungarians up to the second half of the 12th century, in which Hungarian rule was pushed out of Zahumlje. The Byzantine Emperor decided to split the Rascian Grand Princely lands among the four sons of Prince Zavida, and so Miroslav became the Great Prince of Zahumlje in 1162 in the name of his brother, Grand Prince Tihomir of Rascia. In the period of 1166–1168, Miroslav's youngest brother, Prince Nemanja deposed Tihomir from the Grand Princely throne and succeeded him. Miroslav first supported Tihomir, but soon abandoned him and recognized Nemanja. Under Stefan Nemanja, Miroslav attempted to retake the islands of Vis and Korčula, but he was also involved in a war against the Republic of Dubrovnik. Miroslav's navy was sunk near Poljica by the Ragusian, which made him call off the military attempt and ask his other brother, Prince Stracimir, for help. Next year Prince Miroslav attempted to conquer the Dubrovnik Republic continentally with Prince Stracimir, but soon concluded peace with the Republic.

Miroslav's reign

Late Middle Ages

The Serbian rogue noble family "Branivojević" tricked the lord of Zahumlje, Crep, a good friend of King Stefan Dečanski and took his land for themselves. The family were ruling Zahumlje ruthlessly. Bosnian Ban Stephen II Kotromanić (1322–1353) invaded the land and took it for himself. Because of the bad relations between the Branivojević and King Stefan Dečanski, Stefan did not go to war and left the region to Bosnia.

Sandalj Hranić Kosača ruled the area between the river Cetina, to today's Gabela and south towards Boka Kotorska in the late 14th century and into the 15th century. His nephew Stjepan Vukčić Kosača expanded this territory west to Završje and east reaching Trebinje, Bar and at times into Zeta. Kosača proclaimed himself Duke ("Herzog") of St. Sava in 1448. From his title came the name for the entire region of Herzegovina, as well as Herceg Novi.

After the fall of Bosnia to the Ottoman Empire by 1463, the lands Kosača ruled were slowly chipped away. The Venetians soon moved towards the banks of the Neretva while the Ottomans pushed from the north and east. Stjepan Vukčić Kosača died in 1466 and was succeeded by his son Vladislav Hercegović Kosača. Vladislav was forced to act as a vassal to the Ottomans, to ensure some nominal sovereignty. This lasted until 1480 when he had to retreat to Herceg Novi. When the Ottomans took that stronghold in 1483, all Herzegovina was theirs and the Kosača ruling family fell out of power.

Ottoman era

The Ottomans were the first to begin officially using the name Herzegovina for the region. The beg of Bosnia Isa-beg Ishaković mentioned the name in a letter from 1454.

Herzegovina’s unofficial capital of Mostar was first mentioned in 1452. Only a few years later it was invaded by the Ottomans and most likely fell in the year 1466. It was during the time of Ottoman rule that the city gained importance. It soon became a kadiluk and from 1522 it was the centre of the Herzegovina sanjak. By the late 16th century it was incorporated into the newly enlarged Bosnian pashaluk.

The Candian War of 1645 to 1669 caused great damage to the region as the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire fought for control over Dalmatia and coastal Herzegovina.

As a result of the Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699, the Ottomans gained access to the Adriatic Sea through the Neum-Klek coastal area. The Republic of Dubrovnik seceded this to distance themselves from the Venetian Republic's influence. The Ottomans benefitted from this in gaining the region's salt.

As a result of the Bosnian Uprising, Herzegovina was split from the Pashaluk of Bosnia in 1833 and was turned into separate pashaluk known as the Pashaluk of Herzegovina ruled by semi-independent vizier Ali-paša Rizvanbegović. After his death in 1851, Pashaluk of Herzegovina was united with Pashaluk of Bosnia to form the Pashaluk of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was the first time the region was called "Bosnia and Herzegovina" and the name has persisted since then.

In 1852, the region gained its own Franciscan Custody. The custody became the Franciscan Province of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1892.

In the late Ottoman period, Croatian and Serbian serfs launched the Herzegovinian rebellion which began a series of wars in Europe against the Ottomans. The rebellion was largely in protest of the of the country's tax system.

Austrio-Hungarian period

As a result of the Treaty of Berlin, the Ottoman Empire conceded Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary. In 1878 Austro-Hungarian armies occupied the country. The Croatian generals Josip Filipović and Stjepan Jovanović led the invasion. Stjepan Jovanović's troops took Herzegovina, while Filipović's marched into Bosnia from Slavonia.

The Catholic Church was reformed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1881 following the expulsion of the Ottomans from the country. Herzegovina's churches became a part of the Mostar-Duvno Bishopric and the Trebinje Bishopric. In 1890 the Trebinje Bishopric was absorbed by the Mostar-Duvno Bishopric. The Franciscan order also opened the first university in Herzegovina in 1895 in Mostar.

Antebellum and World War II

During the Second World War, Herzegovina was a part of the Independent State of Croatia and was administratively divided into the counties of Hum and Dubrava.

ocialist Yugoslavia

Bosnian war

During the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, large parts of western and central Herzegovina came under controlof the Croatian republic of Herzeg-Bosnia (which later joined the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) while eastern Herzegovina became a part of Republika Srpska.

ee also

*Pashaluk of Herzegovina
*History of Bosnia and Herzegovina