Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka

ethnic group|
group=Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka


poptime=855,025 (2001) citeweb|url= http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/PDF/Population/p9p8%20Ethnicity.pdf
title= Statistics Sri Lanka, Population by district and ethnicity |accessdate=2008-02-21 |format=html |work=Statistics Sri Lanka]
popplace=Sri Lanka, India, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia
rels=Hindu, Roman Catholic, Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Islam
langs= Tamil, Sinhala
related=Tamil people, Sri Lankan Tamils The Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka are Tamil people of Indian origin in Sri Lanka. They are also known as Hill country Tamils, Up-country Tamils or simply Indian Tamils. They are partly descended from workers sent from South India to Sri Lanka in the 19th and 20th centuries to work in coffee, tea and rubber plantations. Some also migrated on their own as merchants and as other service providers. These Tamil-speakers mostly live in the central highlands, also known as the Malayakam or Hill Country yet others are also found major urban areas and in the Northern province. Although they are all termed as Tamils today, some have Telugu and Malayalee origins as well as well as diverse South Indian caste origins. They are instrumental in the plantation sector economy of Sri Lanka. In general socio economically their standard of living is below that of the national average. In 1964 a large percentage were expatriated back to India but left a considerable number as stateless people. By 1990’s most of these have been given Sri Lankan citizenship. Most are Hindus with a minority of Christians and Muslims amongst them. Politically they are supportive trade union derived political parties that have supported most of the ruling coalition since the 1980s.

Tamil-speaking communities

There are today two groups of Tamils in Sri Lanka. The first are the "Sri Lankan Tamils", who either descend from the Tamils of the old Jaffna kingdom or who migrated to the East coast. The second are the "Indian Tamils" or "Hill Country Tamils", who are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work in tea plantations. [de Silva, C.R. "Sri Lanka - A History", pp.177, 181.] Sri Lankan Tamils mostly live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital of Colombo, whereas hill-country Tamils largely live in the central highlands. The Hill Country Tamils and Ceylon Tamils historically have seen themselves as separate communities. In 1949, the United National Party Government, which included G. G. Ponnambalam, a leader of the Tamil Congress and of the Sri Lankan Tamils, stripped the "Indian Tamils" of their nationality, including their right to vote. Prominent Tamil political leaders such as S. J. V. Chelvanayakam and his Tamil opposition party opposed this move.cite web|title=Missed Opportunities and the Loss of Democracy:The Disfranchisement of Indian Tamils: 1948-49
author= Rajan Hoole|url=http://www.uthr.org/BP/volume1/Chapter1.htm|publisher=uthr.org|accessdate=2007-05-03]

Under an agreement between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, around 40% of Hill Country Tamils were granted Sri Lankan nationality, and many of the remainder were repatriated to India. [de Silva, C.R. "Sri Lanka - A History", p.262] However, the ethnic conflict has led to the growth of a greater sense of common Tamil identity, and the two groups are now more supportive of each other. By the 1990s most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship. [de Silva, C.R. "Sri Lanka - A History", p.262]

There is also a significant Tamil-speaking Muslim population in Sri Lanka. Unlike Tamil-speaking Muslims from India, however, they do not identify themselves as ethnic Tamils and are therefore usually listed as a separate ethnic group in official statistics. [de Silva, C.R. "Sri Lanka - A History", pp.3–5, 9.]

History

Flow of immigrants

Historically Sri Lankan monarchs have used the services of South Indian labor since centuries BCE. According to the primary source Mahavamsa, number service groups from Pandyan kingdom in present day Tamil Nadu accompanied the settlement of Anuradhapura by Prakrit speakers. There is epigraphic evidence of traders and others self identifying as Damelas (or Damedas) in Anuradhapura and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as 2nd century BCE. [Indrapala, K "The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka", p.157] South Indian soldiers were brought to Anuradhapura in ever larger numbers in the seventh, eight, ninth and tenth centuries ACE leading to number of rulers relying on their help to consolidate and rule. There was also large scale mercantile activity from peninsular India primarily from the Coromandel Coast. [Indrapala, K "The Evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka", p.214-215]

The majority Sinhalese caste structure has accommodated the recent Hindu immigrants from South India leading to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups-the "Salagama", the "Durava" and the "Karava". [Spencer, J, "Sri Lankan history and roots of conflict", p. 23] This migration and assimilation happened until the eighteenth century. Salagamas whose caste legends allude to South India, came as specialized service providers as weavers but eventually they became cinnamon peelers. How and when this happened is unclear.de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (2005), p.121]

Initial recruitment

The current Hill Country Tamils derive their origins from a British colonial era project. According to Professor Bertram Bastianpillai, workers around the Tamil Nadu cities of Thirunelveli, Tiruchi, Madurai and Tanjore were recruited from 1827 [Nadarajan, V "History of Ceylon Tamils", p.124] by Governor Sir Edward Barnes on the request of George Bird, a pioneering planter.cite conference | first = V | last = Radhakrishnan | title = Indian origin in Sri Lanka:Their plight and struggle for survival | booktitle = Proceedings of First International Conference & Gathering of Elders | pages = | publisher = International Center for Cultural Studies, USA | date = | location = | url = http://www.iccsus.org/IstConf/111.html | doi =
id = | accessdate = 2008-01-23 ] There is also a trading community of Indian Tamils who were not part of the plantation economy. [citeweb|url= http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/sl_overview.html|title= Sri Lanka - an Overview.|accessdate=2008-02-20 |format=html |work= Fullbright commission] As soon as these migrant workers were brought to Mannar, the port at which they landed on their arrival by boat from South India, they were moved via Kurunagela to camps in the town of Matale. There they were quarantined for a period of a week or more, examined for infectious diseases such as small pox, cholera or typhoid and vaccinated them against these diseases before they were sent to Kandy, from where they were dispersed to locations where they would either work on estates already established by a pervious gang of workers or clear the jungle to establish new ones. Many died during their firs few months of employment.They were instrumental in the establishment of tea, rubber, coffee and coconut plantations. They formed the bulk of the labour force that turned the malaria-infested forests of Sri Lanka into rich plantations, which sustains the Sri Lankan economy until now.citeweb|url= http://www.flonnet.com/fl1816/18160950.htm
title= In search of a new identity.|accessdate=2008-03-05 |format=html |work=V. Suryanarayan] citeweb|url= http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2005/stories/20030314000805700.htm
title=A promise of identity|accessdate=2008-02-05 |format=html |work=V. S Sambandan]

ociety

;Population figures
Census operations started in Sri Lanka in 1871. The Census of 1871, 1881, 1891 and 1901 had lumped together Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils. Since 1911, Indian Tamils have been shown as a separate category. The population statistics are revealing. In 1911, Indian Tamils constituted 12.9 per cent of the population, whereas Sri Lankan Tamils formed 12.8 per cent; in 1921, 13.4 per cent and 11.5 per cent; in 1931, 15.2 and 11.3; in 1946, 11.7 and 11.0; in 1953, 12.0 and 10.9; in 1963, 10.6 and 11.0; in 1971, 11.6 and 11.2; and in 1981, 5.5 per cent and 12.7 per cent respectively.

The statistics reveal a more than 50 per cent fall in the Indian Tamil population between 1971 and 1981. The main reason for the fall was the repatriation of Indian citizens to India. Another fact is that that many Indian Tamils, after acquiring Sri Lankan citizenship, declared themselves as Sri Lankan Tamils. Some Tamils who migrated to urban areas and also to the North and the East also followed this same example.

;Caste orientation of a plantationThe social structure of the plantations resembles the South Indian rural social structure. The community is generalyy bound by caste system. In a plantation, the tea factory is the center of activities and it stands in the central part of the plantation. The office adjoins this and these are surrounded by the quarters of the staff members such as clerks, tea makers, conductors, petty accountants or "kanakkupillais", and supervisors. The bungalows of the planter and his assistants are in an isolated areas. These will be in close proximity to the office. The dwellings of the workers called "line rooms" are situated a little further away from the factories.

Those who are considered to be of higher castes such as Vellalas, Kallar, Agamudaiyar, Maravar, Naidus, Reddiars and Nairs occupy the first row of line rooms. They perform respectable jobs such as factory work and grinding of tea as minor labor work. Even though they belong to the labor category they are influential among conductors, tea makers, "kanganies" (or supervisors) and other officials. The workers considered low castes live in the dwellings that are away from the center and these dwellings are called "distant" or "lower lines". This group consists of Pallar, Paraiyars, Sakkiliar, washers and barbers. The yard sweepers and changers of clothes are in the lowest rank. ;Survival of customsThese groups follow the customs, traditions, and festivities of the South Indian Tamil ancestors. The traditional musical instruments such as "Thappu" and "Parai" are used and folk dances such as "Kavadi, Kummi and Karaga Attam" are performed. Folk dramas called "Koothu" in their various forms such as "Ponnar Koothu, Sangaran Koothu, Arujunan Thabas, Kaman Koothu" are still prevalent among them along with "Silambadi" as an important feature.

Religion

.In 1981 about 90 percent of the Indian Tamils were Hindus. They have little contact with Buddhism, and they worship the Hindu pantheon of gods. Their religious myths, stories of saints, literature, and rituals are distinct from the cultural sources of the Sinhalese. Furthermore, a minority of the Indian Tamils- 7.6 percent are converts to Christianity, with their own places of worship and separate cultural lives. In this way, the large Tamil minority in Sri Lanka is effectively separated from the mainstream Sinhalese culture and is fragmented into two major groups with their own Christian minoritiesciteweb|url= http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/lktoc.html
title= Sri Lanka:Country study|accessdate=2008-03-05 |format=html |work=Russell Ross]

The first known temple was built in Matale. It began as a stone an icon of the goddess Mariamman. At this very location where the worship of her began in 1820, the now-famous Matale Sri Muthumariamman Temple was built in 1852. The trading community of the Nattukotai Chettiars introduced the worship of Murugan in his form as Lord Kathiresan at Matale and was to subsequently build the Kathiresan temple at Matale. The annual festival of this temple is celebrated in the month of July. Devotees of the plantation sector walk from the tea estates and hometowns they live in to Kathirkamam, a place considered sacred by both Buddhists and Hindus, in the South of Sri Lanka, where Murugan is worshiped in the form of Skanda.Deepavali, Pongal and Tamil New Year are commonly celebrated as festivals.

;Folk deitiesEach caste has its own deity based on caste predecessors and are worshiped as guardian angels, such as the Kallar caste had Nallananpillai Perumal as their guardian angel to whom vows and sacrifices made. Deities such as Madasamy, Muniandi, Kali, Madurai Veeran, Sangili Karuppan, Vaalraja, Vairavar, Veerabathran, Sudalai Madan, Nagaphooshani Ammann and Roda Mini are also worshiped.

;Temple societies tries to stem the tide of conversions.

Politics

;Community DevelopmentThe community was a closed community confining themselves to the plantations, while t actively contributed and contributes to the economic well-being of this country but the socio economic indicators of the community was amongst the worst in the country. The community in general was isolated, living in ghettoes within the central region as well as linguistically isolated from the majority Sinhalese villagers who live in the valleys. They were captive labor whose life in its entity was decided by the employers. Any social relationship or cultural ties were only among themselves or with South India. In the 1940s the trade union movement had galvanized the plantation workers into a militant working class. They joined hands with the Lanka Sama Samaja (or Socialist) Party, which carried the message of a working class struggle for liberation from the exploitation by mostly British plantation companies.

Sri Lanka became independent in 1948 and the community believes that it became the first community marked out for discrimination by the new state of Ceylon in 1948. In the elections to the first parliament of Ceylon, seven Indian Tamil representatives were returned to Parliament. The plantation workers voted either for Indian Tamil candidates or for Lanka Sama Samaja Party candidates. Dr.N.M.Perera was the leader of the opposition in the 1st parliament and the Lanka Sama Samaja Party was the second largest party after the United National Party.

Disenfranchisement

The first Prime Minister, D.S. Senanayake of the conservative United National Party reacting to the possibilities of losing power to leftist political parties, commenced the task of weakening the leftist parties and their associate organizations. Indian Tamil labor had overwhelmingly supported these organizations. According opposition parties he was also influenced by segments of the majority Sinhalese population who felt their voting strength was diluted due to Indian Tamils. He introduced the "Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948", the "Indian-Pakistani Citizenship act of 1949" and amended the "parliamentary elections act" and disfranchised the Indian Tamils along with many persons of Indian and Pakistani ancestry. As they had no means of electing any one to the Parliament they ceased to be the concern of parliamentary politicians. The plantation workers were thus forgotten from 1948 - 1964. They were unable to profit by any progressive legislation. The housing, health and education of the plantation workers were neglected. Infant mortality was highest in the country. Although since the introduction of universal franchise in 1931, strong traditions of social welfare in Sri Lanka have given the island very high indicators of physical well-being. Impressive national statistics tended to hide the existence of deprived pockets within the population and the most deprived population group has been the plantation labor which had been economically, politically and socially deprived.

; Donoughmore CommissionThe Donoughmore Commission of 1928 recommended universal franchise, and this was also meant to include the plantation workers as well. Page 57 of the report proposed Quote|"In the first place we consider it very desirable that a qualification of five years residence in the Island (allowing the temporary absence not exceeding eight months in all during the five years period) should be introduced in order that the privilege of voting should be confined to those who have an abiding interest in the country or who may be regarded as permanently settled in the Island.... this condition will be of particular importance in its application to the Indian immigrant population. Secondly, we consider that the registration of voters should not be compulsory or automatic but should be restricted to those who apply for it...". However, the very concept of Universal Franchise was anathema to most of the political leaders of that era. Ponnambalam Ramanathan, a highly respected leader, opposed universal franchise as he felt that the caste system was an integral part of the Hindu way of life( Dr. Jane Russell, Communal Politics under the Donoughmore Commission, 1931-1947, Tissera Publishers, Sri Lanka 1982 ] , p16), and led a delegation to London seeking to legally enshrine the caste hierarchy, and dethrone universal franchise. The Kandyan Sinhalese also objected to the enfranchisement of the Indian estate workers as they feared that their electoral base would be diluted by a large influx of Indian Tamil votes. They also argued that the Tea estates were land plundered by the British, and that the Kandyan peasants have been driven from their traditional lands and those injustices would be compounded if the Indian workers were legitimized. Governor Stanley, by an order in Council introduced restrictions on the citizenship of Indian workers to make the Donoughmore proposals acceptable to the Ceylonese leaders. Thus the first state council of 1931, which consisted of many Tamil and Sinhalese members, agreed to not to enfranchise the majority of the Indian estate workers. (p 36 ),

;Soulbury CommissionA decade later, the Soulbury Commission which paved the way for the independence of Ceylon recognized the quote|"anxieties arising out of the likelihood of large-scale enfranchisement of the Indian immigrants", The Commission, therefore, left the existing basis of franchise in Sri Lanka undisturbed( [ H. Chattopadhyaya, Indians in Sri Lanka, 1979 ] p. 217).D. S. Senanayake had led the 1941 talks with Sir G. S. Bajpai of India and had reach agreement on modalities of repatriation and citizenship, although they were finally not ratified by Indian prime minister Nehru. D. S. Senanayake had expressed the wish to Quote|"embrace all Indian workers who integrate into the country as members of the Ceylonese nation", and had been relatively sympathetic, as early as 1928, and as late as 1941,to the granting of citizenship to Indian workers who wished to become permanent residents of the Island.

The Soulbury constitution came into effect in 1946. In trying to cobble an all-party cabinet inclusive of the Tamils, led by G. G. Ponnambalam, the Sinhalese nationalist groups led by S. W. R. D Bandaranaike, the Kandyan Sinhalese, Senanayake had to find a compromise formula. The 1947 elections had returned 6 representatives from the Ceylon Indian Congress (CIC), based on the votes of the franchised Indian workers and hill-country Tamils. Although this worried the Kandyans, the main reason for Senanayake and others to review their attitude to Indian workers was the growing threat of Marxist infiltration into estate trade unions. In this he had won the concurrence of G. G. Ponnambalam for the second citizenship act which required ten years of residence in the Island as a condition for becoming citizens of the new nation. Senanayake, who had been very favorable to easy citizenship to the Indian workers had increasingly modified his views in the face of Marxist trade union activity. The Bracegirdle affaire (Prof. K. M. de Silva, History of Sri Lanka, Penguin, 1995 ] p539) was regarded as the harbinger of such dangers. The fear of left-wing politics began to grow in the minds of Sri Lankan politicians of the era. The Colonial government responded to the agitation of the Leftists by imprisoning N. M. Perera, Colvin R. de Silva and other Left leaders. Anti Marxist feelings were shared by the main-stream Sinhalese and Tamil leaders alike. (Prof. K. M. de Silva, History of Sri Lanka, Penguin, 1995 ] , Ch. 36). The criticism in the house was leveled by Tamil members of the upper chamber (senate), like Senator Natesan, who pointed out that Senanayake had supported the franchise of the Indian Tamils till recently, and had "caved in" more recently.

;Parliamentary actsAs the first Prime Minister, D.S. Senanayake, leader of the United national Party (UNP), feared the strong possibilities of Marxist disruption of government and commenced the task of weakening the Marxist parties and their associate organizations. Thus the newly independent first cabinet introduced the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948, the Indian-Pakistani Citizenship act of 1949 and amended the parliamentary elections act. The requirements of ten years of residence for married persons, and seven years for unmarried persons, stipulated in the 1949 act were in line with the legislation used by European nations at the time. It also allowed citizenship to “a person born in Ceylon prior to the date of the Act coming into force, of a father born in Ceylon”. However, this was in effect a continuation of the older, somewhat harsher "status quo" of the Indian workers in the 1930s, prior to the Donoughmore constitution which called for only five years residence.

;Opposition viewsHowever, Ponnambalam and Senanayake were strongly criticized by the Marxist groups as well as by the pro-Sri Lankan Tamil Federal Party (Sri Lanka), it branded Ponnambalam a "traitor", and Senanayake a "Sinhala extremist.". S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, the leader of the Tamil Arasu Kachchi, contested the citizenship act before the Supreme Court, and then in the Privy council in England, on grounds of discrimination towards minorities but the decision concluded that the citizenship act stipulated conditions well in line with those of European states. [B.K.Jain, "The Problem of Citizenship Rights of Persons of Indian Origin in Ceylon", Indian Journal of Political Science Vol.24, No. 1, 1963; J.S.Bains, "India's International Disputes", 1962.] . As the President of the Ceylon Indian Congress (CIC), S. Thondaman had contested the Nuwara Eliya seat at the 1947 general election and won. His party put forward seven candidates in the plantation electorates and six of them were returned. Thus Thondaman became the spokesperson of the plantation workers. The CIC sat with the opposition which included the Marxist parties. He opposed the 1948 citizenship act. Mr.Thondaman supported the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP)in the 1960 elections; after the victory of the SLFP he was appointed to the House of Representative as a nominated Member of Parliament. However, he opposed the 1964 Sirima-Shastri Indo-Ceylon citizenship act. After the victory of the UNP in 1965, S.Thondaman was named as appointed Member of Parliament by the UNP.

;Final rectification The J.R.Jayawardene government which came to power in 1977 rectified the existing short comings of the Indian citizenship act and granted citizenship to all Indian Estate workers (see below). Even at that time, Thondaman was the leader of the Ceylon Workers Congress, the party of the Hill-country Tamils, and had become a skillful player of minority-party politics. He had avoided joining with the Tamil United Liberation Front TULF resolutions of 1974 which had continued with the policies of the ITAK. Thus the hill-country Tamils have successfully charted a course of cooperating with successive Sri Lankan governments.

Labor practices

many had migrated to the northern province. [citeweb|url= http://www.uthayam.net/articles/indiantamil.html|title= Indian Tamils and Plantation economy of Sri Lanka|accessdate=2008-02-20 |format=html |work= Noel S Nadesan]

Current status

was instrumental in using this electoral strength in assuring the socioeconomic conditions of hill country Tamils to improve.The plight of the repatriated persons in India has not been good. [citeweb|url= http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/4002/|title= Plight of repatriated Hill Country Tamils in India|accessdate=2008-02-20 |format=html |work= Refugee International]

Prominent people

* Muthiah Muralidaran - Sri Lanka's prominent cricketer and world record holder
* Savumiamoorthy Thondaman - Post-independence politician
* M.G. Ramachandran - Sri Lankan-born Indian politician
* Natesa Iyer - Pre-independence politician
* Arumugam Thondaman - Sri Lankan politician
* P. Chandrasekaran - Sri Lankan politician
* Prof. Mookkiah- Professor in Geography at University of Peradeniya
* S.Balakrishnan - Founding member of MIRJE Sri Lanka
* Mano Ganesan - Prominent Human Rights activist and a politician
* P.P.Sivapragasam - President, Human Development Organization, Pioneer Human Rights Advocator in United Nations on Minority Rights (Plantation Tamils)

ee also

Other Indian derived communities in Sri Lanka
* Colombo Chetties
* Bharatakula

Notes

References

*de Silva, C.R. (1987, 2nd ed. 1997). "Sri Lanka - A History", New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House. ISBN 81-259-0461-1
*cite book
last = de Silva | first = K. M. | title = A History of Sri Lanka | publisher = Vijitha Yapa |date=2005 | location = Colombo | pages = 782
isbn = 9-55-809592-3
*cite book | last = Ross | first = Russell | title = Sri Lanka: A Country Study| publisher = U.S. Library of Congress | date= 1988 | location = USA | pages = | isbn =
*cite book | last = Kartikecu | first = Civattampi | title = Sri Lankan Tamil society and politics | publisher = New Century Book House | date = 1995 | pages = 189 | isbn =812340395X
*cite conference | first = V | last = Radhakrishnan | title = Indian origin in Sri Lanka:Their plight and struggle for survival | booktitle = Proceedings of First International Conference & Gathering of Elders | pages = | publisher = International Center for Cultural Studies, USA | date = | location = | url = http://www.iccsus.org/IstConf/111.html | doi =
id = | accessdate = 2008-01-23
*cite news | last = Suryanarayan | first = V | title = Sri Lanka: In search of a new identity | language = English | publisher = Frontline | date = 2001-07-17 | url = http://www.flonnet.com/fl1816/18160950.htm | accessdate = 2007-01-24
* Indrapala, K (2007). "The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils of Sri Lanka". Colombo:Vijitha Yapa. ISBN 978-955-1266-72-1.
*cite book | last = Nadarajan | first = Vasantha | title = History of Ceylon Tamils | publisher = Vasantham |date=1999 | location = Toronto
pages = 146 | isbn =
*cite book | last = Spencer | first = Jonathan | title = Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict | publisher = Routledge |date=1990 | location = | pages = 253 | isbn = 04-150-4461-8

Further reading

*cite book | last = Muthiah | first = Subbiah. | title = The Indo-Lankans: Their 200-Year Saga| publisher = Indian Heritage Foundation |date=2003 | location = | pages = 317 | isbn = 955-8790-00-1