Gnomic aspect

A gnomic aspect (abbreviated gno), sometimes called a neutral, generic or universal aspect or tense, is a grammatical aspect that expresses general truths or aphorisms—such as birds fly, sugar is sweet, a mother can always tell.^[1][2] It is one example of imperfective aspect, which does not view an event as a single entity viewed only as a whole, but instead specifies something about its internal temporal structure.

Non-gnomic/generic aspects are called episodic.^[3] Episodic clauses are those that describe specific episodes and actual events, such as We had wine with dinner tonight (episodic) vs. We have wine with dinner (gnomic).

A grammatical gnomic aspect occurs in literary Swahili, where the -a- form of the verb is gnomic (sometimes called 'indefinite tense') and the -na- form of the verb is episodic (sometimes called 'definite tense' or just 'present'). Spanish does not have a gnomic inflection in its verbs like Swahili, but it does have lexical aspect in its be verbs ser (gnomic) and estar (episodic). For instance, estar enfermo means to be sick (episodic), whereas ser enfermo means to be sickly (gnomic).

However, most languages use other forms of the verb to express general truths. For instance, English uses the simple (unmarked) present tense, as in the examples given above. In French, Classical Greek, Tongan, and Dakota, the future tense is used. Biblical Hebrew uses the perfective aspect. In Japanese, an imperfective clause with the wa (topic) particle is used for generic statements such as taiyo-wa higasi-kara nobo-ru [sun-TOP east-from rise-IPFV] "the sun rises in the east", whereas the ga (subject) particle would force an episodic reading.^[4]

English

English has no means of morphologically distinguishing a gnomic aspect; however, a generic reference is generally understood to convey an equivalent meaning. Use of the definite article the or a demonstrative determiner usually implies specific individuals, as in "the car he owns is fast", "the cars he owns are fast", or "those rabbits are fast", whereas omitting the definite article or other determiner in the plural creates a generic reference: "rabbits are fast" describes rabbits in general. However, the definite article may also be used in the singular for classes of nouns, as in "The giraffe is the tallest land mammal living today", which does not refer to any specific giraffe, but to giraffes in general.

English generally uses the simple present tense as the equivalent of a gnomic aspect, as in "rabbits are fast" and "water boils at 212 °F", though the past tense ("Curiosity killed the cat") is sometimes used. The auxiliary "will" can also be used to indicate gnomic aspect ("boys will be boys"). The simple present is used with specific references for the equivalent of a habitual aspect, as in "I run every day"; likewise, the auxiliary "will" is used with specific references for the habitual aspect, as in "he will make that mistake all the time, won't he?". Thus in English the gnomic aspect takes the same form as the habitual aspect.

Ancient Greek

In Ancient Greek, a general truth may be expressed in the future, present imperfective, or aorist, which are called in these cases the gnomic present,^[5] the gnomic future,^[6] and the gnomic aorist.^[7] There is also a gnomic perfect.^[8] These are not distinct tenses, but simply uses of the tense.

A gnomic future, the rarest of the three usages, similarly states that certain events often occur, and does not imply that an event is going to occur. A gnomic aorist (the most common of the three usages) likewise expresses the tendency for certain events to occur under given circumstances and is used to express general maxims. The gnomic aorist is thought to derive (as the English example does) from the summation of a common story (such as the moral of a fable).

References

1. ^ Payne & Payne (2006) Exploring language structure
2. ^ Trask (1993) A dictionary of grammatical terms in linguistics
3. ^ Calson (2006) "Generics, Habituals and Iteratives", in the Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd ed.
4. ^ Shigeko Nariyama (2003) Ellipsis and reference tracking in Japanese, pp 366–367
5. ^ Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar, paragraph 1877:

   Present of General Truth. — The present is used to express an action that is true for all time: ἄγει δὲ πρὸς φῶς τὴν ἀλήθειαν χρόνος time brings the truth to light Men. Sent. 1..

   a. The present is an absolute tense in such sentences. The future, aorist, and perfect may also express a general truth.

6. ^ Smyth, paragraph 1914:

   Gnomic Future. — The future may express a general truth: ἀνὴρ ἐπιεικὴς υἱὸν ἀπολέσᾱς ῥᾷστα οἴσει τῶν ἄλλων a reasonable man, if he loses a son, will (is expected to) bear it more easily than other men P. R. 603 e.

7. ^ Smyth, paragraph 1931:

   Gnomic Aorist (γνώμη maxim, proverb). — The aorist may express a general truth. The aorist simply states a past occurrence and leaves the reader to draw the inference from a concrete case that what has occurred once is typical of what often occurs: παθὼν δέ τε νήπιος ἔγνω a fool learns by experience Hesiod, Works and Days, 218, κάλλος μὲν γὰρ ἢ χρόνος ἀνήλωσεν ἢ νόσος ἐμάρᾱνε for beauty is either wasted by time or withered by disease I. 1. 6.

8. ^ Smyth, paragraph 1948:

   Empiric Perfect. — The perfect may set forth a general truth expressly based on a fact of experience: ἡ ἀταξίᾱ πολλοὺς ἤδη ἀπολώλεκεν lack of discipline ere now has been the ruin of many X. A. 3. 1. 38.

• Bill T. Arnold & John H. Choi, A Guide to Biblical Hebrew Syntax, 2003, p. 56.
• Carlson, Greg N. and Francis Jeffry Pelletier (1995). The generic book. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226092925
• William Watson Goodwin, Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb, 1893, p. 53ff full text
• Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar, 1920. (rev. ed. by Gordon Messing, 1956), section 1931. full text in the 1916 edition
• Russell Ultan, "The Nature of Future Tenses", in Joseph Greenberg et al., Universals of Human Language, 1978, p. 87. full text