Raetorum auxiliary cohorts

This article concerns the Roman auxiliary regiments of the Principate period originally raised in the Roman Alpine provinces of Raetia and Noricum. The cohortes Raetorum ("cohorts of Raeti") were regiments originally recruited in Raetia, a province in the central Alpine region of Europe, which included Germany south of the Danube, most of Switzerland and North and South Tyrol. Also from Raetia were the cohortes Vindelicorum originally raised from the Raeti's neighbours, the Vindelici. The cohortes Noricorum came from the province Noricum, in the eastern Alpine region (roughly corresponding to modern Austria). The cohortes Montanorum appear to have been raised from both Raetia and Noricum. For auxiliary regiments raised in the Western Alps, see Alpinorum auxiliary cohorts.

Introduction

Auxiliary unit nomenclature

Most regiments carried a number and a name (normally a "peregrini" tribal name) e.g. "I Raetorum". A few regiments had no number. A confusing aspect of auxiliary unit nomenclature is that in some cases, more than one regiment can appear in the record with the same number and name e.g. there are two "I Raetorum" units attested in the 2nd century. In a few cases there is dispute as to whether it really is two distinct regiments, as opposed to the same regiment moving from one province to another or two detachments of the same regiment in different provinces at the same time. But in most cases, there is no doubt two separate regiments are involved. They can usually be distinguished by whether one is "equitata" or not, or has a c.R. title or not e.g. "I Raetorum" and "I Raetorum c.R."

The explanation for duplicated names is that where more than one series of cohorts was raised from the same original tribe, numbering would start from 1 again, especially if the second series was raised by a different emperor.

Auxiliary unit types

There were three basic types of auxiliary regiment. (1) an "ala" (literally "wing") was a purely cavalry regiment of 480 horse. (2) a "cohors" ("cohort") was a purely infantry regiment of 480 foot. (3) a "cohors equitata" was a mixed infantry/cavalry regiment of 600 men (480 infantry, 120 cavalry). A minority of regiments were denoted "milliaria" which meant they were nominally double-strength: in practice 720 men for an "ala milliaria", 800 for a "cohors milliaria" and 1,040 (800 inf/240 cav) for a "cohors equitata milliaria". In addition, some regiments were denoted "sagittaria" (from "sagitta", "arrow") meaning they were composed of archers.

The c.R. title

The honorific title "civium Romanorum" ("of Roman citizens", "c.R." for short) was normally awarded by the emperor for valour to an auxiliary regiment as a whole. The award would include the grant of Roman citizenship to all the regiment's men, but not to subsequent recruits to the regiment. The regiment, however, would retain the prestigious title in perpetuity. [Goldsworthy (2005) 97] Until 212, only a minority of the empire's inhabitants (inc. all Italians) held full Roman citizenship. The rest were denoted "peregrini", a second-class status. Since the legions admitted only citizens, "peregrini" could only enlist in the auxilia. Citizenship carried a number of tax and other privileges and was highly sought-after. It could also be earned by serving the minimum 25-year term in the auxilia. In 212 all inhabitants of the empire were granted full Roman citizenship.

Records

The literary evidence for auxiliary regiments is almost non-existent. Unlike for the legions, ancient Roman historians only rarely mention the auxilia at all, and never denote a specific unit. Knowledge of the auxilia is therefore dependent on inscriptions found bearing the regiment's name. Many of these are not datable (even roughly) and so are of limited value. The datable epigraphic record is thus very patchy and incomplete.

The epigraphic record includes: (1) inscriptions from Roman military diplomas, which were bronze certficates of Roman citizenship awarded to peregrini soldiers who completed the minimum 25 years' service in the auxilia: these are very useful as, if complete, they contain a precise date and the province in which the regiment was serving at the time (as well the name, origin and rank of the recipient). (2) tiles or bricks, used in building work on Roman forts, stamped with the regiment's name. These show the forts where a regiment may have been based, but are rarely datable. (3) votive stone altars or tablets, and tombstones. These can indicate the addressee's origin if they are found in provinces away from the regiment's base. A minority are datable.

Provinces deployed

Auxiliary regiments were mostly stationed in one province long-term. The Flavian (69-96) saw a lot of changes in auxiliary deployment in what appears a deliberate policy of deploying regiments away from their original home province. After that, deployments generally became much more settled, with most units remaining in the same province throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Regiments, or detachments of regiments, could be summoned to participate in a major campaign elsewhere, but this would usually be just a short-term deployment.

Forts garrisoned

Auxiliary regiments were normally attached, for operational purposes, to a particular legion. The "praefectus" (commander) of the regiment would report to the "legatus legionis" (legion commander). Auxiliary regiments were mostly housed in Roman forts in frontier provinces or even beyond the empire's settled borders, to keep watch on barbarian activity. A regiment would usually garrison a fort alone, but sometimes shared with another regiment if it was a larger fort. More rarely, regiments appear to have been housed in the "castra legionaria" (legionary fortress) of the legion they were attached to. Although inscriptions, especially the regiment's tile- and brick-stamps, can attest which forts the regiment occupied, most are not datable and so it is rarely possible to reconstruct a precise sequence or chronology of forts occupied.

Personnel origins

Auxiliary personnel left traces in inverse proportion to their numbers, for the obvious reason that memorials such as votive altars or tombstones were expensive and could be better afforded the higher the rank. Thus the names of more "praefecti" (commanders) and "principales" (officers) are attested than of "caligati" (common soldiers, literally "booted" from "caliga", the Roman marching sandal), even though "caligati" constituted over 80% of personnel. The origin of the dedicator/deceased person is often impossible to establish. Sometimes the origin is recorded in the inscription. More commonly, it can be inferred from the location of the inscription if it is away from the province in which the regiment was based.

The Raeti, Vindelici and Norici people

The Raeti was a collective name given to certain Alpine tribes, which occupied part of the eponymous province Raetia et Vindelicum, later called simply Raetia. It comprised much of modern Switzerland, western Austria and Germany south of the river Danube.

The Raeti originally spoke a non Indo-European language that appears related to Etruscan. Livy describes them as "Tusci" (Etruscans). [Livy "Ab Urbe Condita" V.33] Pliny the Elder suggests that the Raeti were driven into the Alps from the Po Valley by invading Gauls. [Pliny the Elder "Naturalis Historia" III.25] Prior to Roman annexation, their territory comprised central and SW Switzerland and North and South Tyrol. They became largely Celtic-speaking through contact with neighbouring peoples such as the Vindelici to the north and the Taurisci to the east. This can be deduced by Livy's comment that their language had become corrupted and the fact that modern Romansh is close to Gallo-Romance. Their territory was annexed to the Roman empire by Augustus in 16 BC. During the centuries of Roman rule, they became Latin speakers: their distinctive provincial "patois" survives today in the form of the Rhaeto-Romance languagesFact|date=April 2008 (although most of the Raeti's original territory is today German-speaking).

The Vindelici, whose chief town was "Augusta Vindelicorum" (Augsburg, Ger), were a Celtic-speaking people, northern neighbours of the Raeti. Their territory was what is now Bavaria south of the Danube and northern Switzerland. They were described by the Roman geographer Strabo as a fierce people that frequently raided their neighbours and put all their male captives to death. [Strabo ] They were subdued by Augustus' stepsons Tiberius and Drusus in 15 BC and their territory annexed to the Roman empire.

The Montani ("mountain people") appears to be a generic name for tribes inhabiting both Raetia and Noricum. [Holder (1980) 112] Norici was a term to denote various tribes in the eastern (Julian) Alps. The most prominent of these were the Taurisci, a Celtic-speaking tribe. Strabo reports that the Norici, in common with the Vindelici, frequently raided their neighbours and killed all their male-born captives. [Strabo ] Their territory was annexed by Roman emperor Augustus in 16 BC.

Raetorum and Vindelicorum cohorts

Being mountain people, the Raeti and Vindelici provided mostly infantry to the auxilia. There are thus no "alae" recorded with these names. There are several "cohortes equitatae", however.

According to Holder, a total of 13 "Raetorum" "cohortes" appear to have been raised, 11 of them not later than the rule of Claudius (41-54) and 2 shortly after 70 AD.Holder (1980) 223-4] But there is dispute about these figures. This is due to confusion about how many regiments shared the name "I Raetorum" because the name is attested in three different provinces during roughly the same periods. It has been suggested there were as many as 3 such regiments in the 2nd century in Cappadocia, Raetia and Germania Inferior. Holder appears to follow this. [Holder (2003) 132-44] Spaul suggests it was a single unit, "I Raetorum equitata c.R.", being moved about frequently, although this was unusual with auxiliary regiments. Here the 3-unit theory is followed. The c.R. title only appears in Germania Inferior so the unit there is denoted "cohors I Raetorum equitata c.R." The unit in Cappadocia was also "equitata", and so is denoted "cohors I Raetorum equitata".Arrian "Acies contra Alanos" I] The unit in Raetia is denoted simply "cohors I Raetorum" as there is no evidence it was "equitata".

If three "I Raetorum" units existed, then 10 Raetorum regiments are attested in the late 1st/early 2nd century. That leaves 3 unaccounted for, evidently disbanded, merged with other units or destroyed in action during the early 1st century: "Cohors Raetorum" (no number) and "cohors Raetorum et Vindelicorum" (no number) are attested in Germania Superior in the Julio-Claudian era, each by a single inscription. "III Raetorum" can be inferred but is unattested anywhere.

According to Holder, 4 "cohortes Vindelicorum" were raised by the death of Nero in 68 AD. "I Vindelicorum" and "IV Vindelicorum" survived into the 2nd century.Holder (1980) 111, 224] But "II" and "III Vindelicorum", which are inferred but unattested, evidently were disbanded or destroyed in action in the early 1st century. In addition to the one mentioned above, a second mixed unit was originally raised, "II Raetorum et Vindelicorum" which was renamed simply "II Raetorum c.R." after c100. [Spaul (2000) 280]

Two "cohortes Montanorum", both called "I Montanorum", were raised under Augustus. Both of which are attested in the 2nd century. [Holder (1980) 111, 223] Also attested by one undatable inscription is a double-strength "II Montanorum milliaria". This regiment may have been one of the "I Montanorum" units after a number change or even merger of both "I Montanorum" units. [Spaul (2000) 296] Finally, two "Noricorum" units appear to have been raised in the Julio-Claudian era (i.e. "ante" 68), probably under emperor Claudius (r. 41-54): a "cohors Noricorum" (no number) and the only "ala" (purely cavalry regiment) supplied by the mountain people, the "ala Noricorum" (no number). Both survived in the 2nd century. [Holder (1980) 111]

The following table displays the available evidence for each "cohors Raetorum". The provinces deployed rubric gives the "minumum" dates that the regiment was based in a province, but it may have been there much longer. The datable epigraphic record is very incomplete. For example, most of the regiments below are believed by inference to have been established before 37 AD, but only one is actually attested at that time, with the rest not attested before 75.

NOTE: "praefecti" or "tribuni" = regimental commanders; "principales" = officers; "caligati" = common soldiers

Citations

References

* Goldsworthy, Adrian "The Complete Roman Army" (2005)
* Holder, Paul "Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army" (1980)
* Holder, Paul "Auxiliary Deployment in the Reign of Hadrian" (2003)
* Spaul, John "COHORS 2" (2000)

See also

* Roman auxiliaries
* List of Roman auxiliary regiments