Infantry in the Middle Ages

at the
Battle of Aljubarrota, 1385] Infantry in the Middle Ages were soldiers who fought on foot during the Middle Ages. They were frequently part of a specialised division such as the pikemen, crossbowmen and longbowmen. Throughout much of the Middle Ages, cavalry, particularly the knights, were dominant on the battlefield, but towards the end of the era the infantry forces achieved primacy.

Mass and firepower

In the Medieval period, the mounted warrior held sway for an extended time. Typically heavily armoured, well motivated and mounted on powerful, specially bred horses, the mounted knight represented a formidable force, which was used to effect against more lightly armoured troops. Since only the noble classes could afford the expense of knightly warfare, the supremacy of the mounted cavalryman was associated with the hierarchal structure of Medieval times, particularly feudalism. As the period progressed, the once despised commoner was increasingly used in more significant battlefield roles, eventually displacing the armored chevalier.

Tactically there were only two ways for infantry to beat cavalry in a direct battle: firepower and mass. Firepower could be provided by swarms of missiles. Mass could be provided by a tightly packed phalanx of men. [James M. Powell, Anatomy of a Crusade: 1213-1221, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986] Such tactics were long-established; the Romans used missile troops, and the core infantry learned to deal with charging cavalrymen by forming a hollow square, or pila, facing outward. The ancient generals of Asia made much use of firepower by deploying regiments of archers to fend off mounted threats. Alexander the Great combined both methods in his clashes with swarming Asiatic horseman, screening the central infantry core with slingers, archers and javelin men, before unleashing his cavalry against the enemy. [Martin Van Creveld, Technology and War: From 2000 BC to Present, 1989,]

The Swiss pikemen

The use of long pikes and densely packed foot troops was not uncommon during the Middle Ages. The Flemish footmen at the Battle of Courtrai, for example, met and overcame the French knights circa 1302, and the Scots occasionally used the technigue against the English during the Wars of Scottish Independence. However, it was the Swiss that brought infantry and pike tactics to an extremely high standard. Morale and motivation. Rather than reluctant peasant levies dragooned into service by the local lairds, the Swiss often fought as volunteer mercenaries for pay throughout Europe. They were generally known as highly motivated, tough-minded soldiers, with little respect for knightly trappings. In several historical accounts, the Swiss stood and fought to the last man, even when greatly outnumbered. Mobility. Historical records indicate that the hard-marching Swiss pikemen also managed to keep pace with cavalry units at times, if only in the confined terrain of the Alpine regions. Such mobility is outstanding but not unknown among foot soldiers. Roman records of operations against the Germanic barbarians show enemy infantrymen trotting with cavalry, sometimes resting their hands on the horses for support. [See Caesar's Gallic Commentaries] Centuries later, the fast moving Zulu impis in Southern Africa made their mark, reputedly achieving an outstanding march rate of 50 miles per day. Using their mobility, the Swiss were frequently able to overcome contemporary mounted or infantry forces. Weapons and equipment. The Swiss utilized more effective versions of pike weapons, including the use of cutting blades and hooks (the halberd) which were excellent for dealing with mounted assaults. Rather than simply meet a poking lance, the cavalryman facing the Swiss could expect to deal with slashing blows that could cleave his armor, or relentless hooks that dragged him from his mount. Pike weapons were considered "unchivalrous" by some of the knightly class, and could be mixed in combat, with thrusting spearmen in the front franks, and slashing halberd men deployed further back after the thrusters had delivered the initial shock treatment. The Swiss wore little armor, unlike the ancient phalanx warriors of old, dispensing with greaves or shield, and donning only a helmet and a relatively light reinforced corselet. Fact|date=July 2008 Maneuver and formations. In numerous battles prior to the rise of the Swiss, it was not uncommon for pikemen to group together and await a mounted attack. Such an approach is sensible in certain circumstances, particularly if the phalanx occupies a strong position secured by terrain features. The downside is that it allows the attacking force more initiative. At the Battle of Falkirk, the Scots pikemen managed to hold off their cavalry opponents, but were caught in a static position, providing targets for the English longbow. The Swiss, though by no means the creators of pike tactics, improved on them by adding flexible formations and aggressive maneuver.

A typical pike force was divided into three sections or columns. The Swiss were flexible in their dispositions – each section could operate independently or combine with others for mutual support. They could form a hollow square for all round defence. They could advance in echelon or in a triangular "wedge" assault. They could maneuver to mount wing attacks – with one column pinning the foe centrally, while a second echelon struck the flanks. Fact|date=June 2007 They could group in depth on a strong natural position like a hill. Even more disconcerting to their opponents, the Swiss attacked and maneuvered aggressively. They did not await the mounted men, but themselves took the initiative, forcing their opponents to respond to their moves. It was a formula that brought them much battlefield success. Effectiveness of the Swiss. The Swiss won a series of spectacular victories throughout Europe, helping to bring down the feudal order over the time, including victories at Morgarten, Laupen, Sempach, and Granson. In some engagements the Swiss phalanx included crossbowmen, giving the formation a missile stand-off capability. Such was their effectiveness, that between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe either hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons (such as the German Landsknechte).

The English Longbowman

The English longbowman brought a new effectiveness to European battlefields, not hitherto known widely for native archery. Also unusual was the type of bow used. Whereas Asian forces typically relied on the powerful multi-piece, multi-layered composite bow, the English relied on the single-piece longbow which delivered a stinging warhead of respectable range and punch. Longbows and archers. In the British Isles, bows have been known from ancient times, but it was among the tribal Welsh that proficiency in use and construction became highly developed. Using their bows, the Welsh forces took a heavy toll on the English invaders of their lands. Adapted by the English, the longbow was nevertheless a difficult weapon to master, requiring long years of use and practice. Even bow construction was extended, sometimes taking as much as 4 years for seasoned staves to be prepared and shaped for final deployment. A skilled longbowman could shoot 12 arrows a minute, a rate of fire superior to competing weapons like the crossbow or early gunpowder weapons. The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow or Arbalest, used often by urban militias and mercenary forces. The crossbow lacked the range of the longbow, but packed a crossbow bolt, or Quarrel, of greater penetrating power, and did not require the extended years of training and use demanded by the longbow. A cheap "low class" weapon, considered "unchivalrous" by those unlucky enough to face it, the longbow outperformed the crossbow in the hands of skilled archers, and was to transform several battlefields in Europe. The longbow on the battlefield. Longbowmen were used to great effect on the continent of Europe, as assorted kings and leaders clashed with their enemies on the battlefields of France. The most famous of these battles were Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt. Against mounted enemies, as at Crecy, the bowmen dug a defensive position defended with staves, and unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights and men-at-arms. Difficult to deploy in a thrusting mobile offensive, the longbow was best used in a defensive configuration. Against mounted opponents or other infantry the ranks of the bowmen were extended in thin lines and protected and screened by pits (as at Bannockburn), staves (as at Crecy) or trenches elsewhere. Sometimes the bowmen were deployed in a shallow "W", enabling them to trap and enfilade their foes.

upremacy of the infantry

Taken together, the mass of the pike and the firepower of the bow put an end to the dominance of cavalry on the European scene, and restored the balance in favor of the once-despised foot soldier. Cavalry was to continue to play a significant role on into the 19th century, particularly in pursuit and reconnaissance operations. It was the foot-soldier however that was decisive. Gunpowder weapons eventually were to provoke even more significant changes in the latter part of the medieval era, and against such lethal arms, the heavily armored cavalryman made an indifferent showing.

ee also

*Medieval warfare
*Infantry

References

Other Sources

*"Technology and War: From 2000 BC to Present", 1989, Martin Van Creveld
*"The Military Revolution: Military innovation and the Rise of The West", 1988, Geoffrey Parker