Three Treatises on Imperial Military Expeditions

"The Three Treatises on Imperial Military Expeditions" is a literary treatise associated with Constantine Porphyrogenitus (905-959AD), giving advice on how an emperor should prepare and mount a military campaign. It is actually the appendix to one of his major works, "De Ceremoniis".

The "Treatises" is assumed to have been written by Constantine for his son, the future Romanos II. The date of writing is unknown, but we can assume it was written after 945AD when Constantine regained the throne and his son was crowned emperor Romanos II at the age of seven. Constantine’s main source for past military protocol was Leo Katakylas, who wrote in the early 10th century under Emperor Leo VI. He in turn drew most of his information from the deeds of Basil I. The popular translation written by John F. Haldon is split into three texts:

Text A

Exposition of imperial expeditions and roster of "aplekta": Begins with marshalling orders for various themes.

Lists six campaigning routes ("aplekta"): along Malagina; Dorylaion; Kabarkin; Koloneia; Kaisareia; Dazimon in the district of the Armeniakon.

Specific instructions to specific officers (the "strategoi", "domestikoi", etc); where they should assemble when the emperor sets off on campaign.

Text B

"What should be observed when the emperor intends to go on an expedition": Consists of two case studies: Constantine the Great and Julius Caesar; only it cannot really be them because they are described very anachronistically – particularly a Christian Julius Caesar.

Their names could be a cover up for using the case studies of the 'heretical' Isaurian emperors, Leo III and Michael V, etc. – if so then this is proof that iconoclasm was still bitterly condemned during the 10th century.

Constantine the Great was thorough in campaigns: gathering information, throwing off spies, ensuring there was enough equipment – overall stress on importance of good order (έυταξιας).

Lists duties of the "strategoi", also of the "sakellarios", "protovestiarios", "domestikos", and dozens of other officers etc – mainly in making sure there were enough pack animals.

Also appointed a representative in the metropolis to defend the city, provide weapons and maintain morale by suppressing bad rumours and inventing good ones.

Julius Caesar is described as pious, praying at churches and giving alms throughout the City.

Also describes Caesar’s imperial convoy as it advanced – different practices and formations when on friendly soil and when in hostile land.

Text C

"Constantine the Great, emperor of the Romans…to Romanos…what should be observed when the great and high emperor of the Romans goes on campaign": This is the only text in the work addressed specifically to Romanos – particularly note Constantine’s stresses on the importance of father-to-son knowledge.

Features 11 lists of what is required for an imperial expedition, a dizzying list of officers and items: taxes, fodder, animals for feasts, pay for officers and troops, blankets, saddles, napkins, halters, picks, shovels, weapons, rope, goatskin mats and plain garments for foreigners, cushions, folding tables, folding benches, etc.

Contains advice on camp security and specific ceremonies for greeting troops.Ends with 3 case studies of the triumphant returns of emperors Michael III, Basil I and Theophilos.

Ends abruptly – there is a grand introduction but no conclusion at all, so we can assume that it is an unfinished work.

Conclusions

There was a surprising amount of continuation in Byzantine tradition despite the upheavals of the Arab conquests, the ensuing iconoclast controversies and the serious decline in urban life in the west.

There is the continuation of the huge Constantinopolitan bureaucracy – the same towering apparatus that kept the taxes flowing in during the 'Byzantine Dark Age' also powered the Byzantine army and its supplies.

There is also a surprising amount of late antique titles that survived: the "spatharioi", "exkoubitai" and "optimatoi" date from the time of Justinian, and the "praitorion" and "komes" even earlier.

The Treatises is also the first military work written by an emperor since Maurice’s "Strategikon" – Constantine writes about military tradition that has been passed on from the Amorian Dynasty, and even before the Isaurian Dynasty – though no earlier than the days of Theodosius the Great (5th century AD).The return of confidence implied by the Treatises – note the stress on good order – was part of the recovery of the so-called "Macedonian revival".

The fact that the Treatises deals with offensive operations is a point to make – it differs significantly from the other major military work of the day, On Skirmishing Warfare, which deals with defensive operations against raiders and damage limitation.

The "Treatises" anticipates the major offensive operations after the mid-10th century described by the "Praecepta Militaria" and the "de re militari".

This work is characteristic of a transitional stage between the bitter fighting of the 7th to 8th centuries and the turning of the tide in the 10th; Constantine’s reign saw the beginnings of the great offensive in the east, later taken up by Nikephoros Phokas, the "Pale Death of the Saracens".

References

* Three treatises on imperial military expeditions / Constantine Porphyrogenitus, introduction, edition, translation and commentary by John F. Haldon. (Wien : Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften , 1990.)