Learning by teaching

In professional education, learning by teaching (German: ) designates a method that allows pupils and students to prepare and to teach lessons, or parts of lessons. Learning by teaching should not be confused with presentations or lectures by students, as students not only convey a certain content, but also choose their own methods and didactic approaches in teaching classmates that subject. Neither should it be confused with tutoring, because the teacher has intensive control of, and gives support for, the learning process in learning by teaching as against other methods.

History

Seneca told in his letters to Lucilius that we are learning if we teach (epistulae morales I, 7, 8): "docendo discimus" (lat.: "by teaching we are learning"). At all times in the history of schooling there have been phases where students were mobilized to teach their peers. Frequently, this was to reduce the number of teachers needed, so one teacher could instruct 200 students. However, since the end of the 19th century, a number of didactic-pedagogic reasons for student teaching have been put forward.

Students as teachers in order to spare teachers

In 1795 the Scotsman Andrew Bell [Andrew Bell: "Expériences sur l'éducation faite à l'école des garçons à Madras", 1798] wrote a book about the mutual teaching method that he observed and used himself in Madras. The Londoner Joseph Lancaster picked up this idea and implemented it in his schools. This method was introduced 1815 in France in the "", because of the increasing number of students who had to be trained and the lack of teachers. After the French revolution of 1830, 2,000 "écoles mutuelles" were registered in France. Due to a political change in the French administration, the number of écoles mutuelles shrank rapidly and these schools were marginalized. It is important to stress that the learning level in the Bell-Lancaster-schools was very low. In hindsight, the low level can probably be attributed to the fact that the teaching-process was delegated entirely to the tutors and that the teachers did not supervise and support the teaching process.

Students as teachers in order to improve the learning-process

The first attempts using the learning by teaching method in order to improve learning were started at the end of the 19th century.
Selective descriptions and researches
Accurate researches are starting in the middle of the 20th century, however just as selective descriptions. For instance Gartner 1971 [Alan Gartner et al.: "Children teach children. Learning by teaching". Harper & Row, New York 1971] in the US, in Germany Krüger 1975, [Rudolf Krüger: "Projekt „Lernen durch Lehren“". Schüler als Tutoren von Mitschülern'.' Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbronn 1975] Wolfgang Steining 1985, [ Wolfgang Steinig: "Schüler machen Fremdsprachenunterricht". Tübingen: Narr.1985] Udo Kettwig 1986, [Udo Kettwig: "Lernen durch Lehren, ein Plädoyer für lehrendes Lernen". In: "Die deutsche Schule", Nr. 4 1986, 474-485 ] Theodor F. Klassen 1988, [ Theodor F. Klassen: "Lernen durch Lehren, das Beispiel der Jenaplanschule Ulmbach". Zeitschrift Pädagogik, Nr. 11 1988, (S. 26-29)] Ursula Drews 1997 [Ursula Drews (Hrsg.): "Themenheft: Schüler als Lehrende." "PÄDAGOGIK." 11/49/1997. Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim] and A. Renkl 1997 [Alexander Renkl:"Lernen durch Lehren. Zentrale Wirkmechanismen beim kooperativen Lernen." Deutscher Universitätsverlag: Wiesbaden, 1997.]
LdL as a comprehensive method
The method received broader recognition starting in the early eighties, when Jean-Pol Martin developed the concept systematically for the teaching of French as a foreign language and gave it a theoretical background in numerous publications. [ Jean-Pol Martin:"Zum Aufbau didaktischer Teilkompetenzen beim Schüler. Fremdsprachenunterricht auf der lerntheoretischen Basis des Informationsverarbeitungsansatzes". Dissertation. Tübingen: Narr. 1985; Jean-Pol Martin: "Vorschlag eines anthropologisch fundierten Curriculums für den Fremdsprachenunterricht". Habilitation. Tübingen: Narr 1994. Jean-Pol Martin: " Das Projekt „Lernen durch Lehren“ - eine vorläufige Bilanz". In: Henrici/Zöfgen (Hrsg.): "Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen (FLuL). Themenschwerpunkt: Innovativ-alternative Methoden." 25. Jahrgang (1996). Tübingen: Narr, S. 70-86 ( [http://www.ldl.de/material/aufsatz/flul.pdf PDF; 0,2 MB] ), Jean-Pol Martin (2002a): "Weltverbesserungskompetenz als Lernziel?" In: Pädagogisches Handeln – Wissenschaft und Praxis im Dialog, 6. Jahrgang, 2002, Heft 1, S. 71-76 ( [http://www.ldl.de/material/aufsatz/aufsatz2002-2.pdf PDF] )] 1987 he founded a network of more than a thousand teachers that employed learning by teaching (the specifical name: LdL = "Lernen durch Lehren") in many different subjects, documented its successes and approaches and presented their findings in various teacher training sessions. [ Jean-Pol Martin (1989): "Kontaktnetz: ein Fortbildungskonzept", in: Eberhard Kleinschmidt,E.(Hrsg.), "Fremdsprachenunterricht zwischen Fremdsprachenpolitik und Praxis: Festschrift für Herbert Christ zum 60. Geburtstag", Tübingen. 389-400, [http://www.ldl.de/material/aufsatz/konnetz.pdf (PDF 62 KB)] ] From 2001 on LdL has gained more and more supporters as a result of educational reform movements started throughout Germany.

Learning by teaching by Martin (LdL)

LdL by Martin consists of two components: a general anthropological one and a subject-related one.

*The anthropological basis of LdL is related to the pyramid or hierarchy of needs introduced by Abraham Maslow, which consists, from base to peak, of 1) physiological needs, 2) safety/security, 3) social/love/belonging, 4) esteem/self-confidence and 5) being/growth through self-actualization and self-transcendence. Personal growth moves upward through hierarchy, whereas regressive forces tend to push downward. The act of successful learning, preparation and teaching of others contributes to items 3 through 5 above. Facing the problems of our world today and in the future, it is essential to mobilize as many intellectual resources as possible, which happens in LdL lessons in a special way. Democratic skills are promoted through the communication and socialization necessary for this shared discovery and construction of knowledge.

*The subject related component (in foreign language teaching) of LdL aims to negate the alleged contradiction between the three main components: automatization of speech-related behavior, teaching of cognitively internalized contents and authentic interaction/communication.

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Bold text

"'= The LdL-approach =

After intensive preparation by the teacher, students become responsible for their own learning and teaching. The new material is divided into small units and student groups of not more than three people are formed. Each group familiarizes itself with a strictly defined area of new material and gets the assignment to teach the whole group in this area. One important aspect is that LdL should not be confused with a student-as-teacher-centered method. The material should be worked on didactically and methodologically (impulses, social forms, summarizing phases etc.). The teaching students have to make sure their audience has understood their message/topic/grammar points and therefore use different means to do so (e.g. short phases of group or partner exercises, comprehension questions, quizzes etc.). An important effect from LdL is to develop the students websensibility.

Building neural network: websensibility as target

Martin made first steps in order to transfer the brain structure - especially the operating mode from neural networks - on the classroom-discourse [Jean-Pol Martin (2004)in: "Treibhäuser der Zukunft - Wie in Deutschland Schulen gelingen. Eine Dokumentation von Reinhard Kahl und der Deutschen Kinder- und Jugendstiftung". ISBN 3-407-85830-2 (BELTZ), DVD 3] . The consequences regarding the lessons phases and the differences to the other methods will be summed up in the following overview [ Jean-Pol Martin, Guido Oebel (2007): "Lernen durch Lehren: Paradigmenwechsel in der Didaktik?", In: "Deutschunterricht in Japan", 12, 2007, 4-21 (Zeitschrift des Japanischen Lehrerverbandes, ISBN 1342-6575)] :

Most teachers using the method do not apply it in all their classes or all the time. They state the following advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

* Student work is more motivated, efficient, active and intensive due to lowered inhibitions and an increased sense of purpose
* By eliminating the class division of authoritative teacher and passive audience, an emotive solidarity is obtained.
* Students may perform many routine tasks, otherwise unnecessarily carried out by the instructor
* Next to subject-related knowledge students gain important key qualifications like

- teamwork

- planning abilities

- reliability

- presentation and moderation skills

- self-confidence

Disadvantages

* The introduction of the method requires a lot of time.
* Students and teachers have to work more than usual.
* There is a danger of simple duplication, repetition or monotony if the teacher does not provide periodic didactic impetus.

The Martin-reception

Martins Work has been largely received in teacher training and by practicing teachers: since 1985 more than 100 teacher students in all subjects wrote their ending thesis about LdL. Also the education administration received both the theory and the practice of LdL (vgl.Margret Ruep 1999 [Margret Ruep(1999): "Schule als Lernende Organisation - ein lebendiger Organismus," in: Margret Ruep (Hg.)(1999): "Innere Schulentwicklung - Theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Beispiele." Donauwörth: Auer Verlag, S.17-81, insbesondere 32ff.] ). In didactics handbooks LdL has been described as an "extreme form of learner centred teaching" [Andreas Nieweler (Hrsg.)(2006): "Fachdidaktik Französisch - Tradition|Innovation|Praxis". Stuttgart: Klett, 2006. S.318 ] ). On the university level, LdL has been disseminated by Joachim Grzega in Germany, Guido Oebel [Guido Oebel: "Lernen durch Lehren (LdL) im DaF-Unterricht. Eine „echte" Alternative zum traditionellen Frontalunterricht". In: Petra Balmus/Guido Oebel/Rudolf Reinelt (Hg.)"Herausforderung und Chance. Krisenbewältigung im Fach Deutsch als Fremdsprache in Japan". 2005· ISBN 978-3-89129-404-8 ] in Japan and Alina Rachimova [ Alina Rachimova (2007): "Multimedia in der Ausbildung". 2007 ] in Russia.

Learning by teaching outside the LdL-context

Psychology of education

On the field of psychology of education in Germany A. Renkl did research about Learning by teaching almost without referring to Martin. In his publication 1997 he briefly quoted Martin but in his article from 2006 in the "Handbook of psychology of education" he just quoted English articles. [ Alexander Renkl: "Lernen durch Lehren", in: Detlef Rost (Hrsg.)(2006): "Handwörterbuch Pädagogische Psychologie". 3.Aufl. Weinheim: Beltz Verlag. 2006. S.416-420] Eventually he comes to following judgment: "Regarding Learning by teaching the publications shows partly very euphoristic judgments about Learning by teaching (...). Considering the empirical researches this statements must be estimated with caution. Learning by teaching may but doesn't must work successfully." And further: "Thus further researches have to consider above all the utterly important practical and theoretical question, which conditions have to be given in order to reach good results using Learning by teaching as teaching method." Exactly this researches have been done since 1982 by the team surrounding Jean-Pol Martin.

Sudbury schools

Sudbury schools, since 1968, do not segregate students by age, so that students of any age are free to interact with students in other age groups. One effect of this age mixing is that a great deal of the teaching in the school is done by students. Here some statements about Learning by teaching in the Sudbury Schools [ Daniel Greenberg: "Age Mixing, [https://sudval.powweb.com/bookstore/toc/free_01.html Free at Last - The Sudbury Valley School"] . 1987 ISBN 1888947004, (pg. 75-80) ] ::"Kids love to learn from other kids. First of all, it's often easier. The child teacher is closer than the adult to the students difficulties, having gone through them somewhat more recently. The explanations are usually simpler, better. There's less pressure, less judgment. And there's a huge incentive to learn fast and well, to catch up with the mentor. :"Kids also love to teach. It gives them a sense of value, of accomplishment. More important, it helps them get a better handle on the material as they teach; they have to sort it out, get it straight. So they struggle with the material until it's crystal clear in their own heads, until it's clear enough for their pupils to understand."

ee also

* Bell-Lancaster method

References

Notes

Bibliography

* Alan Gartner, Mary Conway Kohler, Frank Riessman: "Children teach children. Learning by teaching". Harper & Row, New York u.a. 1971, ISBN 0-06-013553-0.
* Rudolf Krüger: "Projekt „Lernen durch Lehren“. Schüler als Tutoren von Mitschülern". Klinkhardt, Bad Heilbrunn/Obb. 1975, ISBN 3-7815-0243-0.
* Jean-Pol Martin: "Zum Aufbau didaktischer Teilkompetenzen beim Schüler. Fremdsprachenunterricht auf der lerntheoretischen Basis des Informationsverarbeitungsansatzes". Narr Verlag, Tübingen 1985, ISBN 3-87808-435-8. (zugl. Dissertation, Universität Gießen 1985)
* Jean-Pol Martin: "Vorschlag eines anthropologisch begründeten Curriculums für den Fremdsprachenunterricht". Narr Verlag, Tübingen 1994, ISBN 3-8233-4373-4. (zugl. Habilitations-Schrift, Universität Eichstätt 1992)
* Jean-Pol Martin, Guido Oebel (2007): "Lernen durch Lehren: Paradigmenwechsel in der Didaktik?", In: "Deutschunterricht in Japan", 12, 2007, 4-21 (Zeitschrift des Japanischen Lehrerverbandes, ISBN 1342-6575)
* Guido Oebel: "Lernen durch Lehren (LdL) im DaF-Unterricht. Eine „echte" Alternative zum traditionellen Frontalunterricht". In: Petra Balmus, Guido Oebel u. Rudolf Reinelt (Hrsg.): "Herausforderung und Chance. Krisenbewältigung im Fach Deutsch als Fremdsprache in Japan". Iudicium, München 2005, ISBN 3-89129-404-2. (Kongressdokument der DaF-Werkstatt Westjapan, 2003: Beiträge zur DaF-Werkstatt Westjapan, Ryukyu-Universität, Okinawa, Japan, 12. - 14. Dezember 2003)
* Alexander Renkl: "Lernen durch Lehren. Zentrale Wirkmechanismen beim kooperativen Lernen". Dt. Universitätsverlag, Wiesbadenm u.a. 1997, ISBN 3-8244-4228-0. (zugl. Habilitations-Schrift, Universität München 1996)
* Christine Schelhaas: "„Lernen durch Lehren“ für einen produktions- und handlungsorientierten Fremdsprachenunterricht. Ein praktischer Leitfaden mit zahlreichen kreativen Unterrichtsideen und reichhaltiger Materialauswahl". 2., verb. Aufl., Tectum-Verlag, Marburg 2003, ISBN 3-8288-8548-9.

External links

History

*

LdL

* [http://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/LdL/video/rtsp_thi_en_dsl_medium.mov Videoclip LdL in English]
* [http://www.developingteachers.com/articles_tchtraining/koblenz1_jody.htm Learning by teaching - by Jody Skinner]
* [http://www.ku-eichstaett.de/Fakultaeten/SLF/romanistik/didaktik/Forschung/ldl/f_/ldlintheoryandpractice.pdf LdL in theory and practice (University Münster 2005/2006)]
* [http://www.ldl.de/material/berichte/uni/ldl-engl.pdf Learning By Teaching: The Didactic Model LdL in University Classes] - by [http://www.grzega.de Joachim Grzega]
* [http://www.hltmag.co.uk/sep05/sart04.htm Students teach literature (LdL) by Rosmarie Frick - 2005]

;Teacher training programs
* [http://www.antiochne.edu/ed?ref=wiki/ Antioch University New England / Masters of Education]