- Sexuality in the People's Republic of China
Sexuality in the People's Republic of China has undergone revolutionary changes and this "
sexual revolution " still continues today.The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: China, [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/china.html#0 Demographics and a Historical Perspective] ] Chinese sexual attitudes, behaviors, ideology, and relations have changed dramatically in the past decade of reform and opening up of the country. Many of these changes have found expression in the public forum through a variety of behaviors and ideas. These include, but are not limited to the following cultural shifts: a separation ofsex andmarriage , such as pre- andextramarital sex ; a separation of sex fromlove andchild-bearing such asInternet sex andone-night stands ; an increase in observable sexual diversity such as homo- and bisexual behavior andfetishism ; an increase in socially acceptable displays and behaviors of femalesexual desire ; a boom in thesex industry ; and a more open discussion ofsex topics , includingsex studies at colleges, media reports, formal publications, on-line information, extensivepublic health education, andpublic displays of affection .As can be seen by these developments, China no longer exerts strict control over personal sexual behavior. [Jiang Leiwen. [http://www.iussp.org/Bangkok2002/S02Leiwen.pdf Has China Completed Demographic Transition?] , Institute of Population Research,
Peking University .] Sex is increasingly considered something personal and can now be differentiated from a traditional system that featured legalizedmarital sex and legal controls overchildbirth . The reduction in controls onsexual behavior has initiated a freer atmosphere forsexual expression . More and more people now regardsexual rights as basichuman rights , so that everyone has the right and freedom to pursue his or her own sexual bliss.David Barboza. [http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/03/04/news/shanghai.php A people's sexual revolution in China] . "Internal Herald Tribune" March 4, 2007]Change in the field of sexuality reveals not only a change of sexual attitudes and behaviors but also a series of related social changes via the process of
social transformation . From thesociological perspective, there have been several main factors that have created the current turning point in the contemporary Chinese social context.Contemporary history
Since the early 1980s sex and sexuality have become prominent themes of public debate in China, after three decades during which discourses on sexuality were subject to stringent ideological controls.
The market reform and opening-up policy
China’s reform and opening-up policy has caused a series of great changes in
Chinese society . The denial of the ideals of theCultural Revolution , during which sex was used as a political tool for the control of the people, is an influential factor in making these changes. During the Cultural Revolution, individual sexual preferences were supposed to give way to lofty revolutionary ideals. Extramarital affairs were portrayed as a derogatory lifestyle, and pre-marital sex was immoral.Homosexuality was illegal and would be punished under the statutes forhooliganism . A person had to be sexually well-behaved in order to get a promotion or advance in his or hercareer .The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: China, [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/china.html#6 Homoerotic, Homosexual, and Ambisexual Behaviors] ]Reforms in the area of sexuality show a lessening amount of government control over the individual private life. Many sex-related problems and personal lifestyles are no longer relegated to the field of
politics and thus exempt from severe legal punishment or moral condemnation. Sex has been returned to the personal sphere under the domain of self-management. These changes can be seen in the weakened interference and control of the government in sex-related areas, strengthened sexual resources in the open market, a diversity of sexual lifestyles, and a strong appeal for sexual rights as human rights.For instance, the government’s control of personal lives has gradually retreated since the passing of the new marriage registration principles in October 2003, which again simplified the processes of
marriage anddivorce . The committed parties no longer need certification or confirmation from their place of work or the local Resident Committee to get married or divorced. The pre-marital physical, which among other things once contained an indication of the woman’svirginity , is no longer obligatory. The new principles reflect a greater respect for human rights, a protection of marital freedom, and a change in the governmental function with regards to sexual issues.At the same time, some major social policies have also played an important part. For example, the side effect of the family planning policy is to promote a separation of sexual behavior from reproductive purposes. If a couple can give birth to one child only, sexual behavior is no longer solely practiced to produce babies but also for pleasure. Changes in the legal code have reflected this while also publicly acknowledging sex as a pursuit of happiness.
table economic development and consumerism
Under recent policies, the social economy has seen stable and sustainable growth, especially in big cities. Material wealth and an increase in
quality of life have broughtoptimism andconsumerism which continually send messages to the individual that it is acceptable to seek sexual happiness.Various
sex products are now openly sold in the market. Sexual information is spreading directly or indirectly through such public media as street-sideadvertising . Fewer people turn away when they see intimate behavior between lovers in public.Condom vending machines are seen oncampuses . Products forsafe sex are available inconvenience stores around city. Even majorradio andtelevision stations have started picking up on sex-related topics. Educational programs on sex have become popular.Video shop s, big or small, sell sexually oriented films produced either by domestic or foreign directors. More sexual information can also be quickly and easily found on theInternet . Intermingled information, good or bad, has pushed aside many of the traditionalsexual taboo s and thus shaken the norm of sexual practice.The pursuit of
profit may well push sexual minorities such asgay s andlesbians to appeal for their rights not just for legal reasons but also to tap into their particular market niches. In a stable, developing economy and consumer culture, an emphasis on individual enjoyment and a respect for differentiation and diversity are now well established and perhaps even flourishing in an atmosphere of confidence and optimism.Growth of the middle class
One very important factor driving the social change in contemporary China is the great changes in and reorganization of social stratification. One of the most important features is
white collar workers — the rise of the newmiddle class in China. The new middle class tends to stress their personal happiness and pay more attention to their own quality of life.Based on observations, all the visible sexual changes — including
gay culture — can be considered middle class culture. Most of the related website owners and participants belong to the white collar workers group. The new lifestyle in sexuality fields such as theDINK — "double income, no kids"—family, single groups, and cohabitating couples who violate the traditional sex norms are led by middle class people. They are also the target groups for most gay bars, dating parties, so-called "dating on Saturday" programs, and sports groups, among others, inChinese cities .The rise and growth of this middle class has the potential to produce various sexual
emancipation discourses, including homosexuality, to break the silence.Globalization
Since China adopted the policies of opening up and market reform, globalization has meant that there have been many people traveling across countries and from one region to another in China. It means information sharing, product sharing, capital flow, and value sharing, which increasingly includes some basic understanding of sexual rights,
gender equality , andhuman rights . The country’s various projects on sexuality,reproductive health , andAIDS prevention each have raised people’s awareness of sexuality. Some non-profit international or national organizations are also working in China, while at the same time the international academic community, together with Chinese scholars, is sponsoring workshops and conferences for research on sexuality. [Elain Jeffreys (1997) "Sex and Sexuality in China". Routledge. ISBN 0415401437]Popularization of higher education
Popularization of
higher education has become one of the major changes inChinese education .The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: China, [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/china.html#13 Research and Advanced Education] ] According to recent statistics publicized by theShanghai Education Commission, the gross entrance rate into higher education in Shanghai is 55 percent, ranking first in the country.Beijing comes a close second, at 53 percent. In the same year, the nation’s gross entrance rate into higher education has not yet reached 19 percent. More than half of the population aged 18 to 22 in Shanghai and Beijing can get access to some form of higher education. At present, only a few countries, such asCanada , theUnited States ,Finland ,South Korea , andAustralia , have achieved such levels of higher education.The impact of higher education has been significant. The younger generation may adopt a different sexual ideology from the older generation because they have more opportunities to access the human and
social sciences . They are more geared toward the pursuit of equality, freedom, and self-realization. At the same time, society pays more and more attention to eliteintellectuals such as professors, researchers, lawyers, and policy-making consultants. Their opinions and ideas are expressed to the public in media reports and at conferences. The spreading of knowledge has been the most influential way to eliminate sex discrimination and sex inequality.Feminist discourse in China
Gender equality has been one of China’s national policies. TheCultural Revolution slogan "Women can hold up half the sky" is well known. Many organizations and centers for gender were established after the Fourth UN Conference on Women was held in Beijing in 1995. [ [http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/index.html Fourth World Conference on Women] , Beijing, China - September 1995, Action for Equality, Development and Peace.] The government sponsored the conference and then signed the UN documents pledging gender equality, and official women’s organizations and feminist activists and scholars have been fighting against gender discrimination and working on achieving gender equality. Their struggle has permeated many aspects of the people’s social lives.The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: China, [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/china.html#1 Basic Sexological Premises] ]Mainstream
feminist discourse in China tends to ignore sexuality issues, considering those topics either unimportant or as stirring up unnecessary trouble. Nevertheless, the critical thinking of feminist discourse has challenged stereotyped gender roles, including sexuality roles. The latter especially has influenced many young people.The role of feminist discourse in the field of sexuality has been to redefine a woman’s sex role. It criticized the double standards of sex between women and men, which included traditionally held norms such as that men should be aggressive and active, women passive and inactive; that men should have stronger sexual desires and women weaker; that men should be sexually experienced before marriage but women retain their virginity; that women should not ask too much for sex and should consider men’s satisfaction as their own. The critical feminist discourse is also rewriting the gender views in Chinese society. Some feminist scholars have started to emphasize women’s sexual rights and the diversity of sexuality among Chinese women. Thus China’s sexual revolution is also women’s sexual revolution, as evidenced by these trends.
Role of the media and the Internet
The media is the catalytic agent of sexual revolution in China. The Internet, too, is one of the most prominent agents wielding important influence among the Chinese people through promoting alliances, sharing knowledge, and providing a platform where various voices can be heard. We have noticed that many informal homosexual social networks originally developed through private websites. There are numerous individuals who come to accept their sexual identity mainly because of the Internet. It is obvious that the Internet is a powerful channel for people to find sexual partners, to organize off-line activities, or just simply to have access to sexual knowledge and sex-related information.
exual Revolution
Due to the western media's influence on the younger generation of the Chinese people, many young Chinese feel they need to meet up to the western criteria of beauty and sexuality. In the past decades, there have been an explosion of public displays of affection and a more openness to intercourse before marriage. Men and women feel more comfortable to being honest about their sexualities.
Today many Chinese women are accepting more of the feminists ideas from the west. However, due to the gender imbalance, a Chinese woman's criteria and prerequisites for a mate or a partner are thought to be too high for an average Chinese man. Thus, many Chinese men feel totally left out of the whole "Sexual Revolution."
Urbanization in China has been accelerating the sexual revolution by providing people with more private space and freedom to enjoy sexual pleasure, as compared what was afforded by the traditional countryside way of life. The Internet provides even more powerful support and makes it possible for many people to remain anonymous, to surf the Internet from one website to another, to write their ownblogs , and to express what they want in an environment where there is no prying by co-workers, neighbors, or other peer groups — where no gossip about their behavior exists.AIDS and sexuality
The importance of
AIDS prevention in China has been stressed by both the global society and the Chinese government.The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality: China, [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/IES/china.html#11 HIV/AIDS] ] Such an increase in concern can be a double-edged sword for the sexual revolution in China. It provides both opportunities and risks. Sexuality has to be openly discussed because of AIDS concerns. For example, in the summer of 2005,China Central Television discussed the topic of AIDS under the title "Homosexuality: Confronting is Better than Evading." Scholars and activists have gained the legitimacy to talk publicly about the so-called "high risk" groups such as gay men and sex workers and have been developing strategies to work together with the government, replacing strategies of attacking the "evil" with models for caring for those at risk.Sexuality, including homosexuality, has started to enter the public forum. The whole process is still ongoing, but it is breaking the silence on sexuality taboos. AIDS concerns also bring funding, and many organizations are working to fight the illness. The related knowledge and information on sexuality is spreading continuously among Chinese people, and it also strongly helps people to overcome the
stereotypes ,bias andignorance regarding AIDS and health and sexuality issues.ee also
*Homosexuality and
transgender in China
*Prostitution in the People's Republic of China
*HIV/AIDS in the People's Republic of China References and further reading
*James Farrer (2002) "Opening Up: Youth sex culture and market reform in Shanghai". ISBN 0226238717
*Evans Harriet (1997) "Women and Sexuality in China: Dominant Discourses of Female Sexuality and Gender Since 1949". ISBN 0745613985
*Elaine Jeffreys (editor) (2006) "Sex and Sexuality in China". ISBN 0415401437External links
* [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Sexuality+in+China+today.-a0168586772 Sexuality in China today]
China's Sexual Revolution - Part 1 [http://fr.youtube.com/watch?v=sQUkv9dB-Dw]
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.