Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer

Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer (10 December 1790 – 26 April 1861) was an Tyrolean traveller, journalist, politician and historian, best known for his controversial (some say racist Dream Nation: Enlightenment, Colonization, and the Institution of Modern Greece, Stathis Gourgouris p.142-143] Sociolinguistic Variation and Change, Peter Trudgill, p.131] The Fragments of Death, Fables of Identity: An Athenian Anthropography, Neni Panourgia - Social Science - 1995, p. 28] ) theories concerning the racial origins of the Greeks, and for his travel writings.

Biography

Education

Fallmerayer was born, the seventh of ten children, in Weiler Pairdorf, a village in Tschötsch near Brixen (Bressanone) in Tyrol. The region was at the time of Fallmerayer's birth subject to the Habsburg Monarchy, in 1805 it became a part of Bavaria, and is today located in Italy. His parents were small farmers. From the age of seven Fallmerayer attended the local school in Tschötsch and worked as a shepherd.

In 1801 the family moved to Brixen, where Fallmerayer's father found employment as a day-laborer. Fallmerayer was enrolled in the "Volksschule," where he impressed the priests with his talents. In 1803 he entered the cathedral school as a "Gymnasiast", whence he was graduated in 1809 with a diploma in metaphysics, mathematics, and the philosophy of religion. (The "Gymnasium" in Brixen today bears Fallmerayer's name. [ [http://www.schule.suedtirol.it/rg-bx/unsere%20Schule/stimmen_der_schueler.htm#Fallmerayer Website of the Realgymnasium "J. Ph. Fallmerayer"] ] ) He then left Tyrol, at the time in the midst of a freedom struggle against Bavaria, for Salzburg.

In Salzburg Fallmerayer found employment as a private tutor, and enrolled in a Benedictine seminary, where he studied classical, modern, and oriental philology, literature, history, and philosophy. After a year's study he sought to assure to himself the peace and quiet necessary for a student's life by entering the abbey of Kremsmünster, but difficulties put in his way by the Bavarian officials prevented the accomplishment of this intention.

At the University of Landshut (today the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich), to which he removed in 1812, he first applied himself to jurisprudence, but soon devoted his attention exclusively to history and classical and oriental philology. His immediate necessities were provided for by a stipendium from the Bavarian crown.

Early career

In the fall of 1813, in the midst of the Napoleonic Wars, Fallmerayer decided to seek his fame in military service and joined the Bavarian infantry as a subaltern. He fought with distinction at Hanau on October 30, 1813, and served throughout the campaign in France. He remained in the army of occupation on the banks of the Rhine until the battle of Waterloo, when he spent six months at Orleans as adjutant to General von Spreti. Two years of garrison life at Lindau on Lake Constance convinced him that his desire for military glory could not be fulfilled, and he devoted himself instead to the study of modern Greek, Persian and Turkish.

Resigning his commission in 1818, he was engaged as a teacher of Latin and Greek in the gymnasium at Augsburg, where his students included the young Napoleon III. In Augsburg his liberal, anti-clerical, tendencies, which had already begun to develop during his student years, expressed themselves in opposition to the growing ultramontanism of the Bavarian state.

In 1821 Fallmerayer accepted another position at the Progymnasium in Landshut, where he continued to teach classical languages, in addition to religion, German, history, and geography. Landshut was at the time still a great university city, and Fallmerayer took advantage of its resources to continue his study of history and languages.

In February 1823 Fallmerayer became aware of a prize offered by the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters to encourage research into the history of the Empire of Trebizond. This medieval kingdom, located on the south coast of the Black Sea, was at the time known only through scattered references in Byzantine and Turkish chronicles. Fallmerayer began to collect additional sources in a number of languages, including Arabic and Persian, from libraries across Europe, and corresponded with various scholars, including Silvestre de Sacy and Carl Benedict Hase. In December of the same year Fallmerayer submitted the resulting manuscript to the Danish Academy, and in 1824 he was awarded the prize. Fallmerayer's study, the "Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt," was however not published until 1827.

Fallmerayer attempted to convert his success into professional advancement in the Bavarian educational system. In the fall of 1824 he was named Professor at the Landshut Gymanasium, but in a series of letters to the kings of Bavaria, first to Maximilian I and then, following his death, to Ludwig I, Fallmerayer requested further funding for his research and a position as a professor at the University of Landshut. These requests were however denied, perhaps on account of Fallmerayer's liberal political views.

In 1826 the University of Landshut was moved to Munich, the capital of the Bavarian state, while the Munich Lyceum was moved to Landshut. Fallmerayer was named Professor of History at the latter institution. In the academic year 1826-27 he offered a lecture course on universal history. His inaugural lecture was marked, once again, by his anti-clericalism and reformist-liberal political views. He returned to these themes in his final lecture, in which he presented a vision of a unified Europe under "the rule of public virtues and of laws." ["Er präsantiert dort seine Vision eines liberalen, geeinten Europas, das sich durch "Gerechtigkeit in der Staatsverwaltung nach unterdrückender Willkür, und die Herrschaft der öffentlichen Tugenden und der Gesetze" auszeichne": Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 45.] These lectures, together with his distinctly "unpatriotic" lectures on Bavarian history, began to draw criticism from the more conservative elements of the academic establishment.

In 1827 the "Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt" was finally published, and met with universal praise from its reviewers, including Barthold Georg Niebuhr and Carl Hase. The reaction of the Bavarian establishment was somewhat cooler, in part due to the book's preface. Here Fallmerayer had stated as a "law of nature" that the attainment to earthly power by priests leads to the "deepest degradation of the human race." ["Folglich sei die "tiefste Erniedrigung des menschlichen Geschlechtes jedes Mal der Höhepunkt geistlicher Allmacht":" Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 49.]

The Greek theory

Following the publication of his Trebizond study, Fallmerayer devoted his scholarly activities to another Greek-speaking region of the Middle Ages, namely, the Morea. In particular, he developed his theory that the ancient, "Hellenic," population of the south Balkans had been replaced during the Migration Period by Slavic peoples. A similar idea had already been proposed by the British traveler William Martin Leake, but Fallmerayer turned it into a theory, which he advocated with characteristic zeal.

The first volume of Fallmerayer's "Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters" appeared in 1830, and he expressed his central theory in the foreword as follows:

The race of the Hellenes has been wiped out in Europe. Physical beauty, intellectual brilliance, innate harmony and simplicity, art, competition, city, village, the splendour of column and temple — indeed, even the name has disappeared from the surface of the Greek continent.... Not the slightest drop of undiluted Hellenic blood flows in the veins of the Christian population of present-day Greece. ["Das Geschlecht der Hellenen ist in Europa ausgerottet. Schönheit der Körper, Sonnenflug des Geistes, Ebenmaß und Einfalt der Sitte, Kunst, Rennbahn, Stadt, Dorf, Säulenpracht und Tempel, ja sogar der Name ist von der Oberfläche des griechischen Kontinents verschwunden.... auch nicht ein Tropfen echten und ungemischten Hellenenblutes in den Adern der christlichen Bevölkerung des heutigen Griechenlands fließet": Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 55.]

This phenomenon was further interpreted by Fallmerayer as an indication of the potential of the "Slavic" nations to overwhelm the "Latin" and the "German," a line of thought which he would later develop in his political writings. He further argued that the Great powers who had supported the Greek War of Independence had been led by a "classical intoxication" to misjudge the character of the new Greek state.

The "Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea" set Fallmerayer at loggerheads with the European philhellenes in general, and with the Bavarian King Ludwig I in particular, a convinced philhellene who already in 1829 had begun to advance the candidacy of his son, Otto, for the Greek throne. (Otto became "King of the Hellenes" in 1832.) Ludwig's philhellenism was in fact grounded in the conviction that the Greek revolt against Ottoman rule represented the return of antique Hellenic virtue. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 58.] Ludwig's displeasure with Fallmerayer led to a long delay in the confirmation of Fallmerayer's election to the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The earliest scholarly reviews of Fallmerayer's work were likewise negative. He was accused of philological errors by the Slovenian linguist Jernej Kopitar, and of misreading the historical sources by the historians Johann Zinkeisen and Carl Hopf.

Travels

Upset by the critical reaction to his Morea study, Fallmerayer resolved to travel abroad to collect material for the projected second volume. An opportunity presented itself when the Russian Count Alexander Ivanovich Ostermann-Tolstoy arrived in Munich, seeking a learned companion for an eastward journey. Fallmerayer applied for and received a year-long leave from his teaching duties, and in August 1831 departed from Munich with Ostermann-Tolstoy.

The two sailed first from Trieste to Alexandria, planning to arrive in Jerusalem by Christmas. Instead they remained in Egypt for nearly a year, leaving for Palestine in the summer of 1832. Early in 1833 they sailed for Istanbul by way of Cyprus and Rhodes. In November 1833 Fallmerayer finally set foot in the Morea, where the party remained for a month before travelling north to Attica. There Fallmerayer was struck by the preponderance of Arvanitika, a language closely related to modern Albanian. The party arrived in Italy in February 1834, and returned to Munich in August of the same year.

Upon his return Fallmerayer discovered that the Landshut Lyceum had in the meantime been moved to Freising, and that his position had been eliminated. Behind this early "retirement" lay Fallmerayer's "known convictions, which, particularly in religious matters, are incompatible with the teaching profession." [Letter of Count Seinsheim to the Bavarian Ministry of the Interior, "bekannte - besonders in religiöser Hinsicht für den Lehrberuf nicht geeignete Gesinnungen": Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 70.] He was instead offered an "Ordinarius" position as a member of the Bavarian Academy, where his first lecture concerned the "Albanisation" of the population of Attica. His lecture was answered with an attack on his theories by Friedrich Wilhelm Thiersch, and the two opposing lectures led to a controversy in Munich academic circles, as well as in the popular press.

The controversy had a pointedly political dimension, with Thiersch representing the "Idealpolitik" position, according to which Bavaria should support the Greek state, and Fallmerayer advocating a hands-off "Realpolitik." This political polemic was further provoked by the preface to the second volume of Fallmerayer's "Geschichte", published in 1836, in which he wrote that the Greek War of Independence was a "purely Shkypitarian [Albanian] , not a Hellenic Revolution." ["rein schkypitarische, nicht eine hellenische Revolution": Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 74.] He advocated furthermore the replacement of the German monarchy in Greece by a native regime.

1839 marked the beginning of Fallmerayer's career as a correspondent for the "Allgemeine Zeitung", where he would continue to publish until his death. Fallmerayer's contributions to the "AZ" included travel essays, book reviews, political columns, and "Feuilletons".

Fallmerayer soon after left the country again on account of political troubles, and spent the greater part of the next four years in travel, spending the winter of 1839–1840 with Count Tolstoy at Geneva. Between July 1840 and June 1842 Fallmerayer embarked on his second major journey, setting out from Regensburg and travelling along the Danube and across the Black Sea to Trebizond. After long stays in Trebizond, Istanbul, Athos-Chalkidiki and the rest of Macedonia, and Athens, he returned to Munich via Trieste and Venice.

Fallmerayer published numerous reports from this journey in the "AZ", in which he offered a mix of political observations, restatements and further developments of the Greek theory, and "charming descriptions of Anatolian and Turkish landscapes [that] bear comparison with the best examples of 19th-century "Reisebilder" (travel images)." ["Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexkion", vol. 5, p. 388.] During his year-long stay in Istanbul (October 10, 1841 through October 24, 1841), Fallmerayer began to advocate European support of the Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against the growing influence of the Russian Empire in the Balkans. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 113.] These articles were collected and published in 1845 as the "Fragmente aus dem Orient", the work on which Fallmerayer's fame as a "littérateur" largely rests.

Fallmerayer's anti-Russian sentiments were not yet fully developed, and upon his return to Munich in 1842, he was befriended by the Russian poet and diplomat Fyodor Tyutchev. This latter had been entrusted by Karl Nesselrode and Alexander von Benckendorff to find a new spokesperson for Russian interests in Germany. Fallmerayer's Greek thesis had aroused interest in Russian circles, and it was perhaps for this reason that Tyutchev approached Fallmerayer and proposed that he should serve as a journalistic mouthpiece for Czarist policy. Fallmerayer declined, and it has indeed been suggested that his growing opposition to Russian expansionism was provoked by this encounter. [R. Lauer, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer und die Slaven," in Thurnher, ed., "Fallmerayer", 133-34.]

By 1845, when the "Fragmente" were published, Fallmerayer's distrust of the Tsars had led him to a view of world-historical development that was opposed to the idealistic accounts of Hegel and of Fallmerayer's most vocal opponent, Thiersch. Instead of steady progress toward freedom, Fallmerayer perceived a fundamental polarity between "East" and "West":

For nearly eighteen aeons [Äonen] , all history has been the result of the struggle between two basic elements, split apart by a divine power from the very beginning: a flexible life-process on the one side, and a formless, undeveloped stasis on the other. The symbol of the former is eternal Rome, with the entire Occident lying behind her; the symbol of the latter is Constantinople, with the ossified Orient.... That the Slavs might be one of the two world-factors, or if one prefers, the shadow of the shining image of European humanity, and therefore that the constitution of the earth might not admit philosophical reconstruction without their assent, is the great scholarly heresy of our time. ["Alle Geschichte ist seit bald achtzehn Äonen nur Resultat des Kampfes der beiden Grundelemente, in welche diese eine göttliche Urkraft von Anbeginn auseinanderging: beweglicher Lebensprozeß auf der einen Seite und formlos unausgegorenes Insichverharren auf der andern. Sinnbild des ersten ist die ewige Roma mit dem ganzen dahinterliegenden Okzident, Sinnbild des andern Konstantinopel mit dem erstarrten Morgenland.... Daß aber die Slaven der eine der beiden Weltfaktoren, oder wenn man lieber will, der Schatten des großen Lichtbildes der europäischen Menschheit seien und folglich die Konstitution des Erdbodens ohne ihr Zutun im philosophischen Sinne nicht rekonstruiert werden könne, ist die große wissenschaftliche Häresie unserer Zeit": quoted in "Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexkion", vol. 5, p. 388.]

Thiersch once more replied to these polemics in an article, also published in the "AZ", arguing that the placement of western-European rulers on the thrones of the new Slavic states in the Balkans would be sufficient to prevent the rise of a "new Byzantine-Hellenic world empire." [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 114.]

Fallmerayer's essays in the "AZ" drew the attention of the Bavarian Crown Prince Maximilian, whose political views were significantly more liberal than those of his father. Between 1844 and 1847 Fallmerayer served Maximilian as a mentor, and occasionally as a private tutor, on historical and political questions. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 161-73.] His analysis of Balkan politics, commissioned by Maximilian in 1844, is preserved. [Titled "Die gegenwärtigen Zustande der europäischen Turkei und des freien Königreiches Griechenland" (The present conditions of European Turkey and of the free Greek Kingdom), it is published in Thurnher, "Jahre der Vorbereitung", 17-34.]

In May 1847 Fallmerayer set out on his third and final eastern journey, leaving from Munich for Trieste, whence he sailed to Athens, where he had an audience with King Otto. By June he had arrived in Büyükdere, the summer residence of the Istanbul elite, where he remained for four months before travelling south to the Holy Land via Bursa and İzmir. In January 1848 he sailed from Beirut back to İzmir, where he stayed until his return to Munich. Fallmerayer's contributions to the "AZ" from this period emphasized the strength of Ottoman rule and reformist tendencies in the Turkish government, which he contrasted to the "desolate" condition of the Kingdom of Greece. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 116.]

1848

Already in 1847 Ludwig I of Bavaria had initiated a liberal-leaning reform of the Bavarian educational system, and on February 23, 1848, he appointed Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer Professor Ordinarius for History at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, where he was to replace the recently deceased Johann Joseph von Görres. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 132-35.] Fallmerayer, still in İzmir, received the news in March and, completely surprised, returned immediately to Munich. [Thurnher, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer in seiner und in unserer Zeit," in Thurner, ed., "Fallmerayer", 13; Leeb, "Fallmerayer," 135.]

Fallmerayer never offered a single class at the University, however, for on April 25, before the beginning of the summer semester, he was chosen as a Bavarian delegate to the Frankfurt Parliament, a product of the Revolutions of 1848. [On the complicated political circumstances surrounding Fallmerayer's selection, see Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 187-98.] In May, Fallmerayer's former pupil Maximilian II, King of Bavaria since the abdication of his father in March, called on Fallmerayer to serve as his political advisor, in which role he served until the end of 1848. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 173-86.]

As the parliamentary debates turned in August toward the relationship between church and state, Fallmerayer assumed an uncompromising anti-clerical stance, and his reputation among the left delegates increased. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 203-4.] In October he supported a series of motions put forward by the far-left faction. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 204-5.] In January 1848 he again supported the far-left proposal according to which the new, united Germany was to be led by a democratically-elected president. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 206.] In June, finally, he followed the radical "Rumpfparlament", which represented the last attempt to preserve the parliamentary structure that had been established in 1848, to Stuttgart. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 209-11. On the "Rumpfparlament" see the article in the [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpfparlament_%28Deutschland%29 German Wikipedia] .] The Bavarian regime had forbidden its delegates to participate in the Stuttgart Parliament, and following its forcible break-up on June 18 by Württembergian troops, Fallmerayer fled to Switzerland. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 211-13.] In September 1849 his appointment to the faculty of the University of Munich was revoked by Maximilian II. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 140.] In December 1849 the Bavarian members of the Stuttgart Parliament were offered amnesty, and in April 1850 Fallmerayer returned to Munich. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 214-15.]

Late years

Shortly after Fallmerayer's return to Munich, in November 1850, the Munich Professor Johann Nepomuk von Ringseis delivered an "explosive" lecture at a public session of the Bavarian Academy, where he denounced the arrival in Bavaria of a "philosophical Left," marked by liberalism and irreligiosity, that viewed all religion as a "pathological condition." Fallmerayer was present at the lecture and viewed it as an opportunity to reenter the public sphere. His reply was published in January in the Leipzig "Blätter für literarische Unterhaltung", a liberal journal that had been founded by Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus. There he not only responded to Ringseis' account, but furthermore expressed his general opinions on the function of academic institutions, and advocated the "Right to Free Research and Free Speech." ["Recht der freien Forschung und freien Rede":Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 147.] He also made a number of unflattering remarks regarding Ringseis' personal appearance. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 143-149.]

In reaction the ultramontanist party in Munich launched an organized offensive, in both the press and in official circles, to discredit Fallmerayer. An article published in the "Tiroler Zeitung" claimed that, as a result of unspecified transgressions committed in Athens, Fallmerayer had been punished by rhaphanidosis. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 155. The punishment, attested for ancient if not for modern Athens, involved the insertion of a radish into the offender's anus; see J. Davidson in the London Review of Books, August 24, 2000 [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v22/n16/davi02_.html (available online)] .] On January 25, Peter Ernst von Lasaulx proposed the formation of a commission to consider Fallmerayer's expulsion from the Academy; despite a spirited defense of Fallmerayer by Leonhard von Spengel, the motion was passed with a vote of 10 to 8. The commission was formed in March, and while it declined to expel Fallmerayer, resolved to compose an official rebuke, which was published in the "AZ" on March 12. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer",150-54.]

In his last decade Fallmerayer continued to publish a stream of political and cultural articles, in particular in the journals "Donau" and "Deutsches Museum". With the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854, Fallmerayer's activity as correspondent for the "AZ" once more increased. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 93.] In this conflict he naturally supported the European-Ottoman coalition against the Czar. [Brief account in Lauer, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer und die Slaven," in Thurnher, ed., "Fallmerayer", 156-57.] He also returned to more academic pursuits, devoting particular attention to a series of publications on the medieval history of Albania.

Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer died in Munich on April 26, 1861, as a result of weakness of the heart. [Leeb, "Fallmerayer", xxvi.] The last entry in his diary, written the previous evening, reads "Fahle Sonne". [E. Thurnher, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer," in Thurnher, ed., "Fallmerayer", 15.]

Contributions

Fallmerayer is considered one of the great 19th-century intellectuals in the German-speaking world. ["Jakob Philpp Fallmerayer gehört zu den großen Geistern des 19. Jahrhunderts im deutschsprachigen Raum": Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 1.] He is remembered as "a co-founder of Byzantine studies, as discoverer of the divisive Greek theory, as a prophet of the world-historical opposition between Occident and Orient, and finally as a brilliant essayist." ["So gilt er als Mitbegründer der Byzantinistik... als Entdecker der umstrittenen Griechentheorie... als Prophet des welthistorischen Gegensatzes zwischen Okzident und Orient... und schließlich als brillianter Essayist": Leeb, "Fallmerayer", 1-2.] Fallmerayer has been described as "one of the greatest German stylists," [Speck, "Philhellenism," 284] and the "Fragmente aus dem Orient" is a classic of German travel literature. ["Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexikon" Vol. 5, pp. 387-88.]

Fallmerayer was one of three scholars (together with Gottlieb Lukas Friedrich Tafel and Georg Martin Thomas) who laid the foundation for "Byzantinistik" (Byzantine studies) as a self-sufficient academic discipline in Germany. Their achievements were crowned in the following generation by the establishment of the first German "Lehrstuhl" for Byzantinstik at Munich, whose first occupant was Karl Krumbacher. [A. Hohlweg, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer und seine geistige Umwelt," in Thurnher, ed., "Fallmerayer", 47-52. On Fallmerayer's importance for the foundation of Byzantine studies, see also, e.g. C. Mango, "Byzantinism and Romantic Hellenism," "Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes" 28 (1965), 40.]

Among Fallmerayer's scholarly contributions to Byzantine studies, only the "History of the Empire of Trebizond" is still cited as an authority. His general characterization of Byzantine society has also on occasion been revived, most notably by Romilly Jenkins. [R.J.H. Jenkins, "Byzantium and Byzantinism" (Cincinnati, 1963). Cf. C. Mango, "Romilly James Heald Jenkins (1907-1969)," "Dumbarton Oaks Papers" 23 (1969), 7-13, esp. 9-10: " [Jenkins] saw that Byzantium was, on the one hand, the direct ancestor of Russian absolutism, both Czarist and Communist, and, on the other, of nearly everything that he found objectionable in modern Greece.... In this conclusion he had been anticipated by the great German scholar Jacob Philipp Fallmerayer, and to him he proceeded to pay homage in his two famous lectures "Byzantium and Byzantinism".] His Greek theory was already widely disputed in his lifetime, and is not accepted today. Its primary significance was as a "strong impetus for research in Byzantine as well as in modern Greek studies." ["starke Impulse für die byzantinistische ebenso wie für die neogräzistische Forschung": Hohlweg, "Fallmerayer," in Thurnher, ed., "Fallmerayer", 65. For a contemporary assessment of the theory, cf. "ibid.", 64: "His theory is indeed not entirely false, that is to say, it contains a grain of truth. Only its statement in general and absolute terms, to which Fallmerayer so stubbornly adhered, is false... There were indeed Slavic incursions into Greece and the Peloponnese, but not of the magnitude and also not with the consequences that were alleged by Fallmerayer." ("Seine theorie ist ja nicht gänzlich falsch, d.h. sie enthält einen historischen Kern. Nur die Verallgemeinerung und Verabsolutierung, an welcher Fallmerayer so hartnäckig festgehalten hat, ist falsch.... Zwar hat es Slaveneinfälle in Griechenland und auf der Peloponnes gegeben, aber nicht in dem Maße und auch nicht mit den Konsequenzen, wie Fallmerayer das behauptet hat.")] Early criticisms were published by the Austrian scholar Bartholomaeus Kopitar [In K. Hopf, ed., "Geschichte Griechenlands vom Beginn des Mittelalters bis auf unsere Zeit" (Leipzig, 1867-68).] , Friedrich Thiersch, Johann Wilhelm Zinkeisen, [J.W. Zinkeisen, "Geschichte Griechlands vom Anfage geschichtlicher Kunde bis auf unsere Tage" Vol. 1 (Leipzig, 1832).] and by George Finlay. [G. Finlay, "History of the Byzantine Empire", numerous editions (e.g. London, 1908). In general on the early reception of Fallmerayer's theor by Western European scholars, see Veloudis, "Fallmerayer," 67.]

Fallmerayer's work played a decisive role in the development of Byzantine history as a discipline in Greece, where a number of late 19th- and early 20th-century scholars sought to disprove the thesis of racial discontinuity (notable examples include Kyriakos Pittakis and Constantine Paparrigopoulos). [Veloudis, "Fallmerayer," 68-89.] . On account of his insistence on the Slavic origin of the modern Greeks, Fallmerayer was considered a pan-Slavist by many in Greece, a characterization which in any case stood in opposition to his actual writings on contemporary politics. [Veloudis, "Fallmerayer," 65; Curta, "Dark-age Greece," 114.] Fallmerayer's name eventually became "a symbol for hatred of the Greeks," and Nikos Dimou wrote (only partly in jest) that he had been raised to imagine Fallmerayer as a αιμοσταγή ελληνοφάγο (blood-dripping Greek-eater). ["Symbol des Griechenhasses": Veloudis, "Fallmerayer," 89. Dimou: Cited in Speck, "Philhellenism," 292.] In the twentieth century the charge of "neo-Fallmerayerism" was occasionally used by Greek scholars in an attempt to discredit the work of certain Western European scholars, including Cyril Mango, whose work bore no actual relation to Fallmerayer's. [Veloudis, "Fallmerayer," 90.] (The charge was also heard outside of Greece, for example, in the course of a debate between Kenneth Setton and Peter Charanis. [Setton accused Charanis of reviving Fallmerayer's theory. See the summary in Curta, "Dark-age Greece," 113-14.] ) The first modern Greek translation of Fallmerayer's work appeared in 1984. [Curta, "Dark-age Greece," 114 and 136 n. 11: "The first Greek translation of Fallmerayer's work is Polytonic|Περὶ τῆς καταγωνῆς τῶν σημερινῶν Ἑλλήνων (Athens, 1984)."]

Fallmerayer's account of the split between "Occident" and "Orient" hinged on his interpretation of the Russian Empire, which he perceived as a powerful blend of Slavic ethnic characteristics, Byzantine political philosophy, and Orthodox theology. Although he initially perceived this constellation with admiration, and viewed Russia as the potential savior of Europe from Napoleon, his view changed in the mid 1840s, perhaps as a result of his encounter with Fyodor Tyutchev, and he soon came to see Russia as the major threat to Western Europe. By the late 1840s he was convinced that Russia would conquer Istanbul and the Balkans, and perhaps further the Slavic lands of the Hapsburg and Prussian Empires. In the mid-1850s he was overjoyed by the success of the European/Ottoman coalition in the Crimean War. [R. Lauer, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer und die Slaven," in Thurnher, ed., "Fallmerayer", 154-57.] Fallmerayer's account of East and West represented a crucial break from Hegel's idealistic philosophy of history, [Lauer, "Fallmerayer," in Thurnher, ed., "Fallmerayer", 155] and has been characterized as a precursor to Samuel P. Huntington's "Clash of Civilizations" thesis. [Aurenheimer, "Fallmerayer." See also the critical response of Wenturis, "Bemerkungen."]

Political impact of Fallmerayer's Ethnic Theories

In the 1830s, philehellenes who had recently supported the creation of the modern Greek kingdom suspected political motivations in his writings; namely an Austrian desire for expansion southwards into the Balkans, and Austrian antagonism to Russian interests in the area reflected in his other writings. In this context, the calls by English and French intellectuals for a revival of “the glory that was Greece” were seen by Austrians in a very negative light, and any Austrian theory on the Greeks was looked on with suspicion by the philhellenes in the West.

Fallmerayer was first among his contemporaries to put forward a ruthless Realpolitik on the Eastern Question and the expansionist designs of Czarist Russia. He was a Slavophobe and "argued vehemently that only a strong Ottoman State could prevent Russian expansion into Western Europe."

elected works

*1827: "Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt" (History of the Empire of Trebizond) (Munich).
*1830: "Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters." Teil 1: "Untergang der peloponnesischen Hellenen und Wiederbevölkerung des leeren Bodens durch slavische Volksstämme" (History of the Morea Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Part one: Decline of the Peloponnesian Hellenes and repopulation of the empty land by Slavic peoples) (Stuttgart).
*1835: "Welchen Einfluß hatte die Besetzung Griechenlands durch die Slawen auf das Schicksal der Stadt Athen und der Landschaft Attika? Oder nähere Begründung der im ersten Bande der" Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters "aufgestellten Lehre über die Enstehung der heutigen Griechen" (What influence did the occupation of Greece by the Slavs have on the fate of the city of Athens and of the countryside of Attica? Or, a more detailed explanation of the theory regarding the origin of the present-day Greeks that was proposed in the first volume of the "History of the Morea Peninsula during the Middle Ages") (Stuttgart).
*1836: "Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters." Teil 2: "Morea, durch innere Kriege zwischen Franken und Byzantinern verwüstet und von albanischen Colonisten überschwemmt, wird endlich von den Türken erobert. Von 1250-1500 nach Christus" (Part two: Morea, devastated by internal wars between the Franks and the Byzantines, and inundated by Albanian colonists, is finally captured by the Turks. From 1250 through 1500 A.D.) (Tübingen).
*1843-44: "Originalfragmente, Chroniken, Inschriften und anderes Material zur Geschichte des Kaisertums Trapezunt" (Original fragments, chronicles, inscriptions, and other material on the history of the Empire of Trebizond) ("Abhandlungen der Historischen Klasse der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften." Bd. 3, Abt. 3, pp. 1-159 and Bd. 4, Abt. 1, pp. 1-108).
*1845: "Fragmente aus dem Orient" (Fragments from the Orient) [2 volumes] (Stuttgart). [http://www.literature.at/webinterface/library/COLLECTION_V01?objid=11671 Available online]
*1852: "Denkschrift über Golgotha und das Heilig-Grab: Der Evangelist Johannes, der jüdische Geschichtsschreiber Flavius Josephus und die Gottesgelehrtheit des Orients" (Meditation on Golgotha and the Holy Grave: John the Evangelist, the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, and the divine erudition of the Orient) ("Abhandlungen der Historischen Klasse der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften." Bd. 6, Abt. 3, 643-88).
*1853: "Das Tote Meer" (The Dead Sea) ("Abhandlungen der Historischen Klasse der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften." Bd. 7, Abt. 1, pp. 39-144).
*1857: "Das albanesische Element in Griechenland." Abt. 1: "Über Ursprung und Altertum der Albanesen" (The Albanian element in Greece. Pt. 1: On the origin and antiquity of the Albanians.) ("Abhandlungen der Historischen Klasse der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften." Bd. 8, Abt. 2, pp. 417-87).
*1860-61: "Das albanesische Element in Griechenland." Abt. 2 und 3: "Was man über die Taten und Schicksale des albanesischen Volkes von seinem ersten Auftreten in der Geschichte bis zu seiner Unterjochung durch die Türken nach dem Tode Skander-Bergs mit Sicherheit wissen kann." (Pts. 2 and 3: What can be known with certainty about the deeds and fate of the Albanian people from their first appearance in history until their subjugation by the Turks after the death of Skanderberg.) ("Abhandlungen der Historischen Klasse der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften." Bd. 8, Abt. 3, pp. 657-736 and Bd. 9, Abt. 1, pp. 3-110).
*1861: G.M. Thomas, ed., "Gesammelte Werke." Bd. 1: "Neue Fragmente aus dem Orient." Bd. 2: "Politische und kulturhistorische Aufsätze." Bd. 3: "Kritische Versuche." (Collected works. V. 1: New fragments from the Orient. V. 2: Political and cultural-historical essays. V. 3: Critical essays.) (Leipzig). [http://www.literature.at/webinterface/library/COLLECTION_V01?objid=11671 Available online]
*1877: G.M. Thomas, ed., "Fragmente aus dem Orient" (2nd edition, Stuttgart).
*1913: H. Feigl and E. Molden, eds., "Schriften und Tagebücher: Fragmente aus dem Orient. Neue Fragmente. Politisch-historische Aufsätze — Tagebücher (in Auswahl)" (Writings and diaries: Fragments from the Orient, New fragments, Political-historical essays — Selections from the diaries) (Munich and Leipzig).
*1943: E. Mika, ed., "Byzanz und das Abendland: Ausgewählte Schriften" (Byzantium and the West: selected writings) (Vienna).
*1949: F. Dölger, ed., "Hagion Oros oder der Heilige Berg Athos" (Hagion Oros, or, the Holy Mount Athos) (Vienna).
*1963: H. Reidt, ed., "Fragmente aus dem Orient" (Munich).
*1978: F.H. Riedl, ed., "Hagion Oros oder der Heilige Berg Athos" (Bozen). ISBN 88-7014-008-3
*1978: A. Kollautz, ed., "Antrittsvolesung über Unversalgeschichte, gehalten zu Landshut am 20. November 1862" (Inaugural lecture on universal history, held at Landshut on November 20, 1862) ("Der Schlern" 52, pp. 123-39).
*1980: "Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt" (reprint of 1827 edition) (Hildesheim). ISBN 3487005859
*1984: E. Thurnher, ed., "Reden und Vorreden" (Speeches and Forewords) (Salzburg and Munich). ISBN 3-7025-0198-3
*1990: E. Thurnher, ed., "Europa zwischen Rom und Byzanz" (Europe between Rome and Byzantium) (Bozen). ISBN 88-7014-576-X
*2002: E. Hastaba, ed., "Der Heilige Berg Athos" (Bozen). ISBN 8872831741
*2003: N. Nepravishta, tr., "Elementi shqiptar në Greqi" (Albanian translation of "Das albanesische Element in Griechenland") (Tirana). ISBN 99927-950-0-X
*2007: "Fragmente aus dem Orient" (Bozen). ISBN 8872832543

References

ources

*G. Auernheimer, "Fallmerayer, Huntington und die Diskussion um die neugriechische Identität," "Südosteuropa" 47 (1998), 1-17.
*F. Curta, "Byzantium in dark-age Greece (the numismatic evidence in its Balkan context)," "Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies" 29 (2005), 113-45. [http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/fcurta/30708.pdf PDF online]
*W. Jens, ed., "Kindlers neues Literatur-Lexikon" (Munich, 1988-92). ISBN 3-463-43200-5
*T. Leeb, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer: Publizist und Politiker zwischen Revolution und Reaktion" (Munich, 1996). ISBN 3-406-10690-0
*P. Speck, "Badly ordered thoughts on Philhellenism," in S. Takacs, ed., "Understanding Byzantium" (Aldershot, 2003), 280-95. ISBN 0-86078-691-9
*E. Thurnher, "Jahre der Vorbereitung: Jakob Fallmerayers Tätigkeiten nach der Rückkehr von der zweiten Orientreise, 1842-1845" (Vienna, 1995). ISBN 3-7001-2188-1
*E. Thurnher, ed., "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer: Wissenschaftler, Politiker, Schriftsteller" (Innsbruck, 1993). ISBN 3-7030-0258-1
*E. Thurnher, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayers Krisenjahre, 1846 bis 1854: auf Grund der Briefe an Joseph und Anna Streiter in Bozen" (Vienna, 1987). ISBN 3-7001-1197-5
*G. Veloudis, "Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer und die Enstehung des neugriechischen Historismus," "Südostforschungen" 29 (1970), 43-90.
*N. Wenturis, "Kritische Bemerkungen zu der Diskussion über die neugriechische Identität am Beispiel von Fallmerayer, Huntington, und Auernheimer," "Südosteuropa" 49 (2000), 308-24.

External links

Works

At Austrian Literature Online:
* [http://www.literature.at/webinterface/library/COLLECTION_V01?objid=11671 "Fragmente aus dem Orient" and "Gesammelte Werke"]

At Google Books:
* [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0eMQhkV-5eSfayFs5Xvl&id=zvMHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=fallmerayer Gesammelte Werke v.3]
* [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC08858104 Fragmente aus dem Orient]

Websites

* [http://www.uibk.ac.at/alte-geschichte-orient/institutsgeschichte/altorientalistik/jakob_philipp_fallmerayer.html Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Alte Geschichte und Altorientalistik] (in German).
* [http://ostermanniana.ru/Fallmerayer/dwor_fallm.html V. Dworakowski, "Fallmerayer and Osterman-Tolstoi: story of a relationship."] (in Russian).