Bioaerosol

A bioaerosol is a biological aerosol. These particles are very small and range in size from less than one micrometer (0.00004") to one hundred micrometers (0.004"). Bioaerosols react to air currents and move quickly or slowly depending on the environment. Bioaerosols are impacted by gravity but due to their size air density and air currents play a large role in their movement.

Background

Air often contains tiny organisms such as fungi, bacteria, mycotoxins and viruses. None of these organisms live in the air but they are often attached to other small particles such as dried residues from water droplets, dust, soil or skin flakes. Groups of the small organisms clump up and enhance survival while airborn. Due to evaporation of water, bacterial cells usually die when they become airborn but under high humidity conditions bioaerosol levels are increased. Fungal cells such as spores, molds and yeast can be active at low humidity levels and high or low temperatures.

Collection

Many techniques are used to collect bioaerosols such as collection plates, electrostatic collectors and impactors, although some methods are experimental in nature. Another way to collect or detect bioaerosols is by using a mass spectrometer.

ources

Common sources include soil, water, sewage, "Stachybotrys atra" is a well known toxic mold which releases mycotoxins and has been blamed for numerous deaths, particularly several in Cleveland, Ohio. Bioaerosols can be a source of microbial pathogens, endotoxins, and other allergens (1).

ee also

*Mycotoxins
*Aerosol
*Indoor air quality
*Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
*Mold health issues
*Sick Building Syndrome

References

(1) Can J Microbiol. 2002; 48(8):681-96 (ISSN: 0008-4166) Pillai SD; Ricke SCPoultry Science Department, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843-2472

Adams, A. P.; Spendlove, J. C. (1970) Coliform Aerosols Emitted by Sewage Treatment Plants. Science, 169, 1218-1220.

Bavykin, S. G.; Akowski, J. P.; Zakhariev, V. M.; Barsky, V. E.; Perov, A. N.; Mirzabekov, A. D. (2001) Portable System for Microbial Sample Preparation and Oligonucleotide Microarray Analysis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 67, 922-928.

Bernardo, K.; Pakulat, N.; Macht, M.; Krut, O.; Seifert, H.; Fleer, S.; Hunger, F.; Kronke, M. (2002) Identification and Discrimination of Staphylococcus aureus Strains Using Matrix- Assisted Laser Desorption/ Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometery. Proteomics, 2, 747-753.

Brooks, J. P.; Gerba, C. P.; Pepper, I. L. (2004) Aerosol Emission, Fate and Transport from Municipal and Animal Wastes. J. Residual Sci. Technol, 1 (1), 13-25.

Brooks, J. P.; Tanner, B. D.; Gerba, C. P.; Haas, C. N.; Pepper, I. L. (2005) Estimation of Bioaerosols Risk of Infection to Residents Adjacent to a Land Applied Biosolids Site Using an Empirically Derived Transport Model. J. Appl. Microbiol., 98, 397- 405.

Brooks, J. P.; Tanner, B. D.; Josephson, K. L.; Gerba, C. P.; Haas, C. N.; Pepper, I. L. (2005) A National Study on the Residential Impact of Biological Aerosols from the Land Application of Biosolids. J. Appl. Microbiol., 99, 310-322.

Buttner, M. P.; Willeke, K.; Grinshpun, S. A. (1997) Sampling and Analysis of Airborne Microorganisms. In Manual of Environmental Microbiology, Hurst, C. J., Knudson, G. R., McInerney, M. J., Stetzenbach, L. D., Wlater, M. V. (Eds.); American Society for Microbiology Press: Washington, D.C., p 629-640.

Casal, J.; Moreso, J. M.; Planas-cuchi, E.; Casal, J. (1997) Simulated Airborne Spread of Aujeszky's Disease and Foot and Mouth Disease. Vet. Rec., 140, 672-676.

Chastain, J. P.; Wolak, F. J. (1999) Application of a Gaussian Plume Model of Odor Dispersion to Select a Site for Livestock Facilities; Clemson University: Clemson, South Carolina, http:// www.clemson.edu/ agbioeng/bio/Chastain/PLUME%20MODEL.pdf.

Clemmer, D. I.; Hickey, J. L. S.; Bridges, J. F.; Schliessmann, D. J.; Shaffer, M. F. (1960) Bacteriologic Studies of Experimental Air-Borne Salmonellosis in Chicks. J. Infect. Dis., 106 (Mar-Apr), 197-210.

Cox, C. S.; Wathes, C. M. (1995) Bioaerosols in the Environment. In Bioaerosols Handbook, Cox, C. S., Wathes, C. M. (Eds.); CRC Press: Boca Raton, Florida.

Donaldson, Q. I.; Alexandersen, S.; Sorensen, J. H.; Mikkelsen, T. (2001) Relative Risks of the Uncontrollable (Airborne) Spread of FMD by Different Species. Vet. Rec., 148, 600-602.

Douwes, J.; Thorne, P.; Pearce, N.; Heederik, D. (2003) Bioaerosol Health Effects and Exposure Assessment: Progress and Prospects. Ann. Occup. Hyg., 47 (3), 187-200.

Dowd, S. E.; Gerba, C. P.; Pepper, I. L.; Pillai, S. D. (2000) Biaerosol Transport Modeling and Risk Assessment in Relation to Biosolid Placement. J. Environ. Qual, 29 (1), 343-348.

Dowd, S. E.; Maier, R. M. (2000) Aeromicrobiology. In Environmental Microbiology, Maier, R. M., Pepper, I. L., Gerba, C. P. (Eds.); Academic Press: San Diego, California, p 91-122.

Dowd, S. E.; Widmer, K. W.; Pillai, S. D. (1997) Thermotolerant Clostridia as an Airborne Pathogen Indicator During Land Application of Biosolids. J. Environ. Qual., 26 (1), 194-199.

Henningson, E. W.; Ahlberg, M. S. (1994) Evaluation of Microbiological Air Samplers: A Review. J. Aerosol ScL, 25, 1459- 1492.

Israeli, E.; Gitelman, J.; Lighthart, B. (1994) Death Mechanisms in Bioaerosols. In Atmospheric Microbial Aerosols, Theory and Applications, Lighthart, B., Mohr, A. J. (Eds.); Chapman and Hall: New York, p 166-191.

Ivens, U. I.; Breum, N. O.; Ebbehoj, N.; Nielsen, B. H.; Poulsen, O. M.; Wurtz, H. (1999) Exposure-Response Relationship Between Gastrointestinal Problems Among Waste Collectors and Bioaerosols Exposure. Scand. J. Work. Environ. Health, 25 (3), 238-245.

Jones, A. M.; Harrison, R. M. (2003) The Effects of Meteorological Factors on Atmospheric Bioaerosols Concentrations-A Review. Sci. Total Environ., 326 (1), 151-180.

Juozaitis, A.; Willeke, K.; Grinshpun, S. A.; Donnelly, J. A. (1994) Impaction Onto a Glass Slide or Agar Versus Impingement Into a Liquid for the Collection and Recovery of Airborne Microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 66, 861-870.

Lee, J. H.; Jo, W. K. (2006) Characteristics of Indoor and Outdoor Bioaerosols at Korean High-Rise Apartment Buildings. Environ. Res., 101(1), 11-17.

Lindemann J.; Constantinidou, H. A.; Barchet, W. R.; Upper, C. D. (1982) Plants as Sources of Airborne Bacteria, Including Ince Nucleation-Active Bacteria. Appl. Environ. Micmbiol, 44, 1059-1063.

Lindemann, J.; Upper, C. D. (1985) Aerial Dispersion of Epiphytic Bacteria Over Bean Plants. Appl Environ. Micmbiol., 50, 1229-1232.

Mainelis, G.; Gorny, R. L.; Reponen, T.; Trunov, M.; Grinshpun, S. A.; Baron, P.; Yadav, J.; Willeke, K. (2002) Effect of Electrical Charges and Fields on Injury and Viability of Airborne Bacteria. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 79 (2), 229-241.

Mainelis, G.; Grinshpun, S. A.; Willeke, K.; Reponen, T.; Ulevicius, V.; Hintz, P. J. (1999) Collection of Airborne Microorganisms by Electrostatic Precipitation. Aerosol. Sd. Technol, 30 (2), 127-144.

Mehta, S. K.; Bell-Robinson, D. M.; Groves, T. O.; Stetzenbach, L. D.; Pierson, D. L. (2000) Evaluation of Portable Air Samplers for Monitoring Airborne Culturable Bacteria. Am. lnd. Hyg. Assoc. J., 61 (6), 850-854.

Mohr, A. J. (1997) Fate and Transport of Microorganisms in Air. In Manual of Environmental Microbiology, Hurst, C. J., Knudson, G. R., Mclnerney, M. J., Stetzenbach, L. D., Wlater, M. V. (Eds.); American Society for Microbiology: Washington, D.C., p 641-650.

Oppliger, A.; Hilnker, S.; Vu Due, T. (2005) Influence of Seasons and Sampling Strategy on Assessment of Bioaerosols in Sewage Treatment Plants in Switzerland. Ann. Occup. Hyg., 49, 393-400.

Parker, D. T.; Spendlove, J. C.; Bondurant, J. S.; Smith, J. H. (1977) Microbial Aerosols from Food Processing Waste Spray Fields. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed., 49, 2359-2365.

Pasquill, F. (1961) The Estimation of the Dispersion of Wind Borne Material. Meteorol. Mag., 90, 33-49.

Pedgley, D. E. (1991) Aerobiology: The Atmosphere as a Source and Sink for Microbes. In Microbial Ecology of Leaves; Springer-Verlag: New York.

Pillai, S. D. (2002) Bioaerosols and Public Health. In Microbiology of Composting, Insam, H., Riddech, N., Klammer, S. (Eds.); Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Germany, p 595-606.

Pillai, S. D.; Widmer, K. W.; Dowd, S. E.; Ricke, S. C. (1996) Occurrence of Airborne Bacterial Pathogens and Indicator Organisms During Land Application of Sewage Sludge. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 62 (1), 296-299.

Prier, K. R. S.; Lighthart, B.; Bromenshenk, J. J. (2001) Adsorption Model of Aerosolized Bacterial Spores (Bacillus subtilis variety niger) Onto Free-Flying Honey Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and Its Validation. Environ. Entomol, 30, 1188-1194.

Randall, C. W.; Ledbetter, J. O. (1966) Bacterial Air Pollution from Activated Sludge Units. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 27 (6), 506- 519.

Salem, H.; Gardner, D. (1994) Health Aspects of Bioaerosols. In Atmospheric Microbial Aerosols, Theory and Applications, Lighthart, B., Mohr, A. J. (Eds.); Chapman and Hall: New York, p 304-330.

Sanchez-Monedero, M. A.; Steniford, E. I.; Urpilainen, S. T. (2005) Bioaerosol Generation at Large-Scale Green Waste Composting Plants. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc., 55, 612-618.

Seedorf, J.; Hartung, J.; Schroder, M.; Linkert, K. H.; Phillips, V. R.; Holden, M. R.; Sneath, R. W.; Short, J. L.; White, R. P.; Pedersen, S.; et al. (1998) Concentrations and Emissions of Airborne Endotoxins and Microorganisms in Livestock Buildings in Northern Europe. J. Agric. Eng. Res., 70 (1), 97-109.

Sorber, C. A.; Moore, B. E.; Johnson, D. E.; Harding, H. J.; Thomas, R. E. (1984) Microbiological Aerosols from the Application of Liquid Sludge to Land. J. Water. Pollut. Control. Fed., 56, 830- 836.

Tanner, B. D.; Brooks, J. P.; Haas, C. N.; Gerba, C. P.; Pepper, I. L. (2005) Bioaerosol Emission Rate and Plume Characteristics During Land Application of Liquid Class B Biosolids. Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 1584-1590.

Teltsch, B.; Shuval, H. I.; Tadmor, J. (1980) Die-Away Kinetics of Aerosolized Bacterial from Sprinkler Application of Wastewater. Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 39, 1191-1197.

Utrup, L. J.; Frey, A. H. (2004) Fate of Bioterrorism-Relevant Viruses and Bacteria, including Spores, Aerosolized Into an Indoor Air Environment. Exp. EM. Med., 229, 345-350.

Walker, J. (1998) Biosolids Management, Use and Disposal. In Encyclopedia of Environmental Analysis and Remediation, Meyers, R. A. (Ed.); John Wiley and Sons: New York.

Wathes, C. M.; Zaidan, W. A. R.; Pearson, G. R.; Hinton, M.; Todd, N. (1988) Aerosol Infection of Calves and Mice with Salmonella typhimurium. Vet. Rec., 123, 590-594.

External links

[http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/902314/bioaerosols_from_landapplied_biosolids_issues_and_needs Bioaerosols From Land-Applied Biosolids: Issues and Needs]
[http://groups.myspace.com/bioaerosol Bioaerosol Resource Group]
[http://mass-spec.lsu.edu/wiki/index.php/Bioaerosol_MALDI Louisiana State University Project]
[http://www.envsci.rutgers.edu/~mainelis/Projects.htm Rutgers University Project]
[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00045680.htm CDC Report]